Center on Religion & the Professions

Improving religious literacy among professionals.

Communication

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About the discipline

Those who study communication are interested in creating and critically evaluating messages. These messages persuade, inform and entertain in one-to-one interactions, organizational communication and the mass media.

Understanding the message: Modern communicative media shape, and are shaped by, moral visions and narratives that come from religious traditions. Religious perspectives have an impact on modern discourse and religious organizations operate their own media. In personal and intercultural communication, understanding religious beliefs and cues is an important part of successful personal, business and intercultural communication.

Mass communications: Critically listening, reading, thinking and writing about mass media is enhanced by knowledge of religious symbolism and themes. For example, recent films such as “Constantine,” “The Passion of the Christ,” the “Lord of the Rings” trilogy and “Chronicles of Narnia” present overtly religious symbols. More subtle religious messages are found in movies such as “Million Dollar Baby” and “The Sea Inside” because they grapple with the moral dilemma of assisted suicide. (The U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops’ film office gave both movies an “O” rating – for morally offensive – because they offer sympathetic views of euthanasia). Recent films with implicit religious themes include: “Their Eyes Were Watching God” (spiritual awakening), “The Motorcycle Diaries” (spiritual journey), “Sideways” (search for identity), “Shrek 2″ (hero myth), “Lost in Translation” (rite of passage) and “I Heart Huckabees” (existential angst).

Such films may indicate a focus on new religious “enemies,” greater interest in the spirit world and more willingness to accept ambiguity. One could study how films express religious experience and how religious narratives affect the symbolism and arc of modern entertainment. Other issues in mass communication include broadcast regulation, which is influenced by lobbying groups that represent a conservative religious influence. Mass media also pose ethical issues, such as whether to censor nudity or broadcast killing, which may be impacted by religious beliefs about morality and respect for human life. Mass communication is absorbed by a diverse group of people. Understanding the beliefs and needs of people is the key to communicating the message you want to send.

Interpersonal and intercultural: Communication in work and social contexts, family, and conflict management is more effective with understanding of others’ religious traditions and beliefs. Understanding religious and cultural norms – language, social expectations, nonverbal communication, dress and appearance, dining customs, and oral and written communication – can mean the difference between unsuccessful and successful communication. Examples may include knowing that it is proper to eat only with the right hand in the Middle East; or that an Orthodox Jewish man will not shake hands with a woman. This is particularly important as American society grows more diverse and the economy globalized. We have much more contact in all settings with people who come from different cultures and backgrounds. Those who study intercultural communications can also examine the values, beliefs, customs and attitudes that affect intercultural communication.

How we communicate: One way to understand human experience is to look at the communication that accompanies or embodies religious experience. The importance of symbolism to religion is evoked in the practices often associated with religion, such as parables, rituals, prayer, sermons, scriptures, stories, books and religious tracts. Christians were among the first to utilize radio in the 1920s, sending sermons and hymns to the masses. They later followed with television programs and stations and use of the Internet. All of these can be studied as communication artifacts.

Another example is the impact on the modern English language of the King James translation of the Bible, first printed in 1611. The translation – characterized by poetic style and colorful language – is the source for English-language expressions such as “can the leopard change his spots?”, “eye to eye,” “gird one’s loins,” “in the twinkling of an eye,” “fell flat on his face,” “a fly in the ointment,” “labor of love,” “put words in his mouth,” “land of the living,” and “the root of the matter,” among others. Its style is reflected in Abraham Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address” and Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech.

Issues today: There are opportunities to work in mass media writing and reporting about religion in secular and religious contexts. Religions are now recognizing the importance of having a brand and a message in capturing the interest of potential members. They are putting together campaigns, from Web sites and billboards to TV commercials and outreach to secular media for publicity. We live in a time where audience members are increasingly diverse and diffuse. The Internet and satellite TV means we can see the mediated messages of cultures from around the world – and they can see ours. These messages impact perceptions and actions. It is up to those who focus on communication to moderate that exchange, personally and on a mass scale, to critically assess and work toward the most effective communication.

Articles

Books

  • Encyclopedia of Religion, Communication, and Media. Daniel Stout (ed.). Routledge, 2006.
  • Religion and Communication: A Selected, Annotated Basic Bibliography. Eugene D. Tate and Kathleen McConnell. Speech Communication Association, 1988
  • Symbols for communication: an introduction to the anthropological study of religion. J van Baal. Van Gorcum, 1971.
  • Rethinking media, religion, and culture. Stewart M. Hoover and Knut Lundby. Sage, 1997.
  • The International Encyclopedia of Communication. Wolfgang Donsbach (ed.). Chapter on “Religion and Popular Communication” by Jon Radwan. Columbia University Press, 2000.
  • Religion and media. Hent de Vries and Samuel Weber. Stanford University Press, 2001.
  • Religion, morality and communication between peoples. George F. McLean, Heinz Holley, John A. Kromkowski and Robert R. Magliola. CRVP, 2004.
  • Foundations of Religious Tolerance. Jay Newman. University of Toronto Press, 1982.
  • Media, religion and democratic participation: community communication in Zimbabwe and Norway. Knut Lundby. Sage Publications, Inc. 1997.
  • Believers and Beliefs: A Practical Guide to Religious Etiquette for Business and Social Occasions by Gayle Colquitt White (Berkeley Trade, 1997).
  • How to Be a Perfect Stranger: The Essential Religious Etiquette Handbook by Stuart M. Matlins and Arthur J. Magida (editors) (Woodstock, Vermont: Skylight Paths Publishing, 2003).
  • Blind Spot: When Journalists Don’t Get Religion by Paul Marshall, Lela Gilbert, and Roberta Green-Ahmanson (United States: Oxford University Press, 2008).
  • Religion in the News: Faith and Journalism in American Public Discourse by Steward M Hoover (Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, 1998).
  • Marketing in a Multicultural World: Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Cultural Identity. Janeen Arnold Costa. Sage Publications, Inc., 1995.
  • Bridging the Gap: Religion and the News Media by John Dart and Jimmy Allen (Nashville, Tennessee, First Amendment Center, 2000).
  • A Guide to Religion Reporting in the Secular Media: Frequently Asked Questionsby Debra L Mason and Cecile S. Holmes (editors) (Westerville, Ohio: Religion Newswriters Foundation, 2002).
  • Dieties and Deadlines: A Primer on News Coverage by John Dart (Nashville, Tennessee: First Amendment Center, 1998).
  • Islam: Reporting in Context and With Complexity. The Nieman Foundation for Journalism at Harvard University. Vol. 61 No. 2. Summer 2007.

Case studies

Codes of ethics

Journals

More links

Professional associations and faith groups

Recent research

  • Meyer, Birgit. “Religious Revelation, Secrecy and the Limits of Visual Representation.” Anthropological Theory. 6, no. 4 (2006): 431-53.
  • Dumanig, Francisco Perlas, Maya Khemlani David and Ceasar Dewalis. “Conversion narratives and construction of identity among Christians in Malaysia.” Multilingua. 30, no. 3/4 (2011): 319-31.
  • Eisenlohr, Patrick. “Media authenticity and authority in Mauritius: On the mediality of language in religion.” Language & Communication. Vol. 31, No. 3 (July 2011): 266-73.

Syllabi

Recreation, tourism and hospitality

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About the discipline

The Center aims to help people bridge religious differences in positive ways and to teach about religious beliefs in practical settings; travel to other countries and experiencing other religions and cultures first-hand has the potential to accomplish a similar goal.

Workplace diversity: Because of its nature, the hotel, tourism and recreation industry has sites in locales and cultures around the world.

Religion can be an aspect of cultural differences, meaning that those who manage or work at such sites will encounter colleagues and customers from different religious backgrounds. The United States itself has a diverse population and workforce – and U.S. landmarks and recreational sites attract visitors from around the world. A working knowledge of religious beliefs is helpful for those in service-based industries, because neither tourists nor employees leave their religion at home.

Cultural diversity: At times the tourism industries will demand that professionals travel outside their cultural comfort zones in order to either work or forge working relationships with others. Knowing the possible pitfalls in cultural exchanges is a step toward avoiding them and building stronger contacts. In addition, those in the tourism industry have high amounts of contact with a diverse public. Because tourism is service-based, the need to provide excellent service based on sensitivity and understanding is crucial. This could range from understanding that some faiths have dietary restrictions to the need for space for customary prayers.

Religious-themed travel: Travel packages for religious experience are on the rise. Trips to the Holy Land and other parts of the Middle East, for example, have increased in the past 15 years. Travel packages for Muslims making trips to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, to observe the hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca, required of Muslims at least once in their lives) also are on the rise. Travel performs more than a leisure need and the industry can be ready to fulfill the spiritual yearnings of those who want to travel for religious reasons. Another trend is travel packages, such as cruises, airfare, buses, and hotels, for religious groups, from Christian couples and Jewish seniors to religious youth groups and women’s retreats. Hotels and other sites also have a lucrative market in religious gatherings and conferences. Understanding the needs of religious travelers – with special attention to cultural and religious observances – is a good tool for recreation and travel professionals.

Other travel: America’s parks and landmarks attract visitors from around the world, from a multitude of nations, languages, religions and cultures. Administrators and personnel can find ways to be sensitive and helpful to each, through signage, guide materials in appropriate languages and exhibits that explain the diversity of American history and culture. Travel publishers and agencies can also provide information to travelers in the U.S. and abroad about how they may practice their faith in various countries (such as available houses of worship, or religious restrictions). They may also provide information about the cultural and religious customs of countries where tourists may visit, so that they may travel without offending, or being singled out, and get the most of their cultural experience. Travelers also need to be aware that there are some countries where travel is largely limited due to restrictions of religious-based governments.

Issues today: Researchers could study how much religion impacts people’s decisions to travel, and to where. What are people’s concerns about travel? Are they concerned they may not be able to practice their faith in another country? Are they concerned that they may not understand the mores of another culture? Do they worry about danger as a result of volatile religious climates? How important is it for people of various faiths to travel to their faith’s homeland, or to get a first-hand view of significant sites?

Researchers could study what religious education and travel resources are available, or what countries are the best/worst, safest/least safe or most significant for various faiths.

Articles

Books

  • Spiritual Tourism: Travel and Religious Practices in Western Society. Alex Norman. Continuum, 2011.
  • Blessed with Tourists: The Borderlands of Religion and Tourism in San Antonio.Thomas S. Bremer. University of North Carolina Press, 2004
  • Tourism, religion and spiritual journeys. Dallen J. Timothy, Daniel H. Olsen (eds.). Routledge, 2006.
  • Religious Tourism: The Way to Santiago. David Mashhadigholam Rojo. European Tourism Management, Bournemouth University, 2006-07.
  • Holy Hills of the Ozarks: Religion and Tourism in Branson, Missouri. Aaron K. Ketchell. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.
  • Religion and Tourism: Crossroads, Destinations and Encounters. Michael Stausberg. Routledge, 2010.
  • The Changing World of Bali: Religion, Society and Tourism (The Modern Anthropology of Southeast Asia). Leo Howe. Routledge, 2009.
  • Holy Leisure: Recreation and Religion in God’s Square Mile. T. Roy Messenger. Temple University Press, 2000.
  • Hospitality law: managing legal issues in the hospitality industry. Stephen C. Barth and David K. Hayes. John Wiley and Sons, 2005.

Case studies

  • “Tourism and religion: a case study: Visiting students in Israeli universities(.pdf)” by E.H. Cohen, School of Education, Bar-Ilan University, Jerusalem, Israel. Journal of Travel Research (2003): 36-47.
  • “Potentials of Islamic Tourism: A Case Study of Malaysia on East Coast Economic Region.” Bhuiyan, Anowar Hassain; Chamhuri Siwar; Shaharuddin Mohamad Ismail and Rabiul Islam. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences. Vol. 5, No. 6 (2011): 1333-40.

Codes of ethics

Journals

More links

Professional associations and faith groups

Syllabi

Anthropology and archaeology

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About the discipline

Anthropology and archaeology are key disciplines in understanding the role religion has played in past societies and in present society.

Religion is often a driving or very influential force in how societies are formed and how they function. Anthropologists study humans through biology, behavior, language and culture from comparative, evolutionary and historical perspectives. In understanding religion, anthropologists look at symbols, beliefs, patterns of behavior, rituals and moral codes of humans. Earlier Western anthropologists are now thought to have looked at non-Western or non-monotheistic religions through a “primitivist” lens. But today’s anthropologists often follow the example of American anthropologist Franz Boaz, who believed humans live in a pluralistic universe with many realities, in which there are no “better” societies, only different ones. This approach fits well with the vastly globalizing nature of human society and the growing religious diversity of people in America and around the world.

Archaeologists study the material remains of past societies, which can serve as a source of information about religious traditions, ritual practices, symbolic systems and the sacred in pre-historic and historic contexts. Archaeology has contributed to important discoveries into how religious life was established and preserved in the archaeological record.

Religion is a popular field for anthropological and archaeological research. There is keen interest, for example, in biblical archaeology among those hoping to find or disprove support for a historical basis for biblical accounts. Questions one could ask when engaged in this topic of research may arise from the sources of funding, and the goals and politics of sponsors and whether there is a religious bias. Political and religious situations in some nations also impact access to important sites for research. Researchers in these fields should prepare for adulation from religious groups when support for that religion’s historical basis is found, and criticism or dismissal from similar groups if contradictory evidence is found. Findings bring up the issue of whether faiths are in any way reliant on the integration of texts and traditions with artifacts in preserving practice of the faith as well as the potential power of archaeological findings to challenge existing beliefs. There is also interest among religious communities in understanding how their traditions were practiced in earlier times, which gives them context for modern-day interpretation and worship. Researchers could also explore how their own beliefs inspire or inform their work.

Articles

Books

  • An Archaeology of the Cosmos: Rethinking Agency and Religion in Ancient America. Timothy R. Pauketat. Routledge, 2012.
  • A New Anthropology of Islam. John Richard Bowen. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  • Anthropology and Religion: What We Know, Think, and Question. Robert L. Winzeler. AltaMira Press, 2007.
  • Belief in the Past: Theoretical Approaches to the Archaeology of Religion. Left Coast Press, 2008.
  • Cave Paintings and the Human Spirit: The Origin of Creativity and Belief. David S. Whitley. Prometheus Books, 2009.
  • Introducing Anthropology of Religion: Culture to the Ultimate. Jack Eller. Routledge, 2007.
  • Old Myths, New Approaches: Interpreting Ancient Religious Sites in Southeast Asia. Alexandra Haendel. Monash University Press, 2012.
  • Religion, Archaeology, and the Material World. Timothy Clack. Ed. Lars Fogelin. Southern Illinois Center for Archaeological Investigations, 2009.
  • Roman Domestic Art and Early House Churches. David L. Balch. Mohr Siebeck, 2008.
  • The Archaeology of Ritual. Evangelos Kyriakidis. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, 2007.
  • The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon’s Temple to the Muslim Conquest. Jodi Magness. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  • The Sexual Person: Toward a Renewed Catholic Anthropology. Todd A. Salzman and Michael G. Lawler. Georgetown University Press, 2008.

Case studies

  • Archaeology, ritual, religion. Timothy Insoll. Routledge, 2004.
  • “Can there be an archaeology of religion? Two case studies in Roman Britannia” by Ashley Maloney. Texas Tech University doctoral thesis. Retrieved from Texas Tech Libraries. Published May, 2012.
  • The Anthropology of Religion: An Introduction. Fiona Bowie. Wiley-Blackwell, 2006.

Codes of ethics

Journals

More links

Professional associations and faith groups

Recent research

  • Benard, Akeia A. “The Material Roots of Rastafarian Marijuana Symbolism.” History & Anthropology. 18, no. 1 (2007): 89-99.
  • Bloch, Maurice. “Religion and Morality: An Anthropological Comment.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 29, no. 5 (2006): 465-6.
  • Briault, Camilla. “Making Mountains Out of Molehills in the Bronze Age Aegean: Visibility, Ritual Kits, and the Idea of a Peak Sanctuary.” World Archaeology. 39, no. 1 (2007): 122-41.
  • Carpenter, Karen A. “Limiting Principles and Empowering Practices in American Indian Religious Freedoms.” Connecticut Law Review 45.2 (2012): forthcoming.
  • Meyer, Birgit. “Religious Revelation, Secrecy and the Limits of Visual Representation.” Anthropological Theory. 6, no. 4 (2006): 431-53.
  • Müller-Kessler, C., T.C. Mitchell and M.I. Hockey. “An Inscribed Silver Amulet from Samaria.” Palestine Exploration Quarterly. 139, no. 1 (2007): 5-19.
  • Porter, Adam L. “The Sepphoris Synagogue: Deciphering an Ancient Message Through Its Archaeological and Socio-Historical Contexts.” American Journal of Archaeology. 111, no. 1 (2007): 179.
  • Rountree, Kathryn. “Performing the Divine: Neo-Pagan Pilgrimages and Embodiment at Sacred Sites.” Body and Society. 12, no. 4 (2006): 95-115.
  • Stohlman, Sarah. “At Yesenia’s House…” Qualitative Sociology. 30, no. 1 (2007): 61-80.

Syllabi

Women’s studies and gender studies

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About the discipline

Over millennia, women’s lives have often been defined by religion. The earliest religions are believed to have revered female fertility and to have worshipped goddesses. Later religions brought polytheistic male and female gods and the idea of a male supreme deity. Religions have brought with them proscriptions for female behavior, rules about treating women and views of women that have ranged from empowering to devaluing. Religious beliefs have been behind many of women’s oppressions as well as advances. Beliefs about women’s roles in religious leadership, worship and ideology of the divine have impacted women’s experiences through the present day.

Demographics: Women have outnumbered men as participants in religious communities for decades. This domination in numbers brings up several issues that could be studied, such as whether congregational worship is more attractive to women than men and why, or what experiences within a religious community draw women and keep them committed to the affiliation. Researchers could also study what social, economic, professional, cultural, spiritual or personal benefits are obtained by women through religious affiliation.

The figures also highlight women’s roles in many aspects of church membership and leadership. The number of women in church leadership in the U.S. – as well as women’s attendance and graduation from seminaries – has grown consistently in recent decades. The 2006 election of Katharine Jefferts Schori as the first female presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church, U.S.A., raised much interest in the concept of female religious leadership in the top ranks. Her election was hailed by some and deemed divisive by others.

Gender roles: Women remain in a minority at the highest religious leadership positions, however. Southern Baptist churches do not allow women senior pastors and the Roman Catholic Church does not ordain women. Other sects of Christianity such as the Pentecostal movement have long encouraged women to lead in ministry. Mainline Protestant churches welcome more female pastors each year and some say the future may show a female-dominated clergy in these denominations, though statistics show women are most often at small churches and are paid less than male pastors at larger churches.

Researchers could study which roles women generally fill in religious organizations and analyze why those roles appeal to women, or whether there are structures in place – official or unofficial – that prescribe certain roles for women. The Center on Religion & the Professions focuses on religions’ impact on the workplace and professionals.

Those interested in women’s studies could partner with the Center to look at the workplace climate of a religious setting. Do women pastor differently than men? Are there different sets of expectations? Do senior pastors of different genders have more in common than senior and assistant pastors in general? Does gender shape the role, or does the role shape the professional regardless of gender? What would women in leadership positions in a setting such as a church or synagogue want colleagues and the public to know about religious leadership, or about being a woman?

Some in the Christian church movement have criticized churches in recent years for placing more emphasis on love than social justice, implying that women are more concerned about love, and because of their domination in numbers in church, churches tend to emphasize that idea more than justice.

On the other hand, women involved in religions have been key players in many social justice issues, from abolition of slavery to global outreach, to the peace movement. Some think female religious leaders are more likely to engage in political and civil issues. Research that attempts to build bridges in church communities could attempt to dispel stereotypes while addressing what might be legitimate needs among parishioners – a broader message and ministry not defined in terms of gender. The role of women in religious communities is particularly strong, and studying both changes and impacts are in some ways a study of society itself.

Religion and rights: Historically, much of the oppression women have faced came as a result of policies within churches and organized religion. Forced marriage, oppressive ideas about sexuality, quashing of rights to speak, and lack of stake in family leadership are all issues women have faced through the centuries. On the other hand, research in recent decades has shown that women who are involved in religion report higher levels of happiness. Researchers could examine this dichotomy to discover core values held by women who choose to affiliate with a religion and those who do not. Researches could look at what specifically and indirectly makes women happier when their lives are tied to religious beliefs and settings. They could also look at how much religious oppression colors women’s views about religion in the present day and whether it affects their choice to be or not be religious.

While religion can be oppressive to individual and gender rights, religions have also helped pave the way for social changes and civil rights. The Christian Apostle Paul wrote that “… women should remain silent in the churches. They are not allowed to speak, but must be in submission, as the law says” (1 Corinthians 14:34), but also made the point that there is no “male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Galatians 3:28) and instructed husbands and wives to have mutual care for each other. The Christian church’s prohibitions against divorce, which may have bound women into marriages against their will, was also designed to protect women from finding themselves cast out of a home. The Protestant Reformation helped change paradigms about views of women by first emphasizing the value of the individual, and his or her own value in the eyes of God, a key underlying idea to the exploration of human rights.

Another example where rights are debated is within Islam, which, based on cultural interpretations, is known to place restrictions on women in terms of what they wear, where they can go, and with whom they can associate. Women are banned from driving in Saudi Arabia, and in nations such as Afghanistan are forced by law or social/religious pressure to dress and behave in certain ways, including prohibitions against education. However, Islam is also known for granting rights to women long before many Western countries. Islam dictates that women, whether single or married, are individuals in their own right, with control over their financial affairs, and the right to own and dispose of property and earnings. A woman keeps her own family name when marrying. Islam’s prophet Muhammad is quoted to have said that the “best among you are those who are best to their wives.”

In the United States, the effort to obtain the vote for women, with the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, was successful in part due to the fact that men and women of the time generally accepted the belief that women were more moral and pious than men. Though the battle for the vote was also fought on civil rights grounds, it won over many voters who believed that women with a vote could help temper the evil in society, such as alcohol and other immoralities, to make the country more pious. Women were active in the temperance movement, which resulted in the 18th Amendment prohibiting the sale or production of alcohol from 1920 to 1933. Earlier, women’s rights advocates also fought for abolition of slavery and some were active in efforts to achieve universal suffrage.

Work with the Center could explore the plight of women around the world who suffer oppression related to religion, as well as what women acting in faith and secularly are doing to ensure rights for women. Education can teach about the past and present conditions in religions that oppress, as well as examine where religious beliefs and cultural mores begin and end in an attempt to communicate a nuanced understanding of the role religion plays in the lives of women. Those aiming to understand religious teachings as they relate to women can compare teachings and practice and their impacts.

Reproductive issues: Women’s issues, reproductive rights and religious beliefs clash over issues such as abortion, which is hotly debated in religious communities. Abortion proponents frame it as a “woman’s right to choose” (control over her own body or whether to bear a child), while abortion opponents frame it as “taking a human life” (a religious and moral sin). Some could argue that the two sides are having different conversations about different issues. Research that attempts to bridge those gaps could be useful for all sides. They may not agree, but they might understand each other’s positions more clearly, in ways that inform each side’s viewpoint.

Birthrates in general are impacted by religious beliefs. For example, in scripture holy for Christians and Jews, believers are urged to “Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth” (Genesis 1:28), implying that it is holy and mandated to have many children. But in the 19th century in the United States, the Second Great Awakening – a period of evangelistic revival – was tied to development of the “Protestant work ethic.” The belief system attributed piety to an ethic of delayed gratification and abstinence, limiting family size for economic self-interest in the industrial society. Having fewer children gave women more freedom to pursue additional interests.

Declining birthrates among the Jewish faith are another trend. The number of Jews in the U.S. is declining, with the birthrate now below replacement levels. The number of children raised in Jewish homes is also dropping through Jews marrying outside the faith or not formally affiliating with their faith tradition. The decline in Jewish women’s birthrate has also been tied to the fact the Jewish women are statistically likely to marry late and delay childbearing because of education and careers. Survival is a major theme of Judaism, which has prompted some Jewish women to embrace single motherhood or older parenthood using reproductive technology to help them have more children. This trend has also created a demand for Jewish donor eggs and surrogates, and prompted some Jewish congregations to consider how far they are willing to go to preserve the faith.

Another issue relates to health access and religious beliefs. In the U.S., the Roman Catholic Church holds 16 percent of community hospital beds. Catholic-affiliated hospitals have strict rules about services (such as contraception and other procedures) that cannot be done due to moral objections. Congress and some states have allowed “conscience” clauses that allow hospitals to opt out of certain treatments on moral grounds, even if they receive public funds. Pressure is rising on both sides of the reproductive rights debate to broaden or limit the scope of such laws. It raises the question of when religious freedom trumps patients’ rights to health care. Access to reproductive services could be curtailed in many communities, particularly in areas where health care is limited. But religious liberties guaranteed in the Constitution could be threatened if laws are passed that infringe on religious organizations’ right to uphold their beliefs.

Gender issues: The idea of male Catholic priests being allowed to marry is a major issue facing the Catholic Church within the U.S., as some have criticized celibacy as an outdated policy that encourages abuse. Debate also touches the issue of whether to ordain women to help swell the dwindling ranks of Catholic priests.

Bitter disputes about the ordination of gays and lesbians in the clergy have gripped different sects of the American church the past decade. These debates tend to center on interpretation of religious text and tenets, some held for centuries. While this might seem to be purely a religious debate, American history has shown that how these debates resolve in religious settings tends to influence how policies are shaped within the political arena. Education and understanding of the true implications of these debates is worthwhile to the scholar interested in these issues.

Just as women dominate in numbers as far as religious involvement, recent surveys show men are less likely to worship at services or participate in affiliated activities. Some say this is the result of a “feminization” of Jesus. Churches are trying to figure out ways to get more men involved in religion by tying faith to traits traditionally associated with men.

Issues today: Researchers could study the role of religion in both oppressing women around the globe and behind organizations reaching out to women affected by the AIDS crisis and female-related health problems related to poverty and women’s minimized importance in society. Women in the U.S. may explore the ethical dilemmas of unbalance in opportunities for women in the U.S. and some Third World nations. Studies could look at changing demographics, the roles of woman in leadership roles (such as how being a woman affects being a clergy leader), or how being religious affects secular leadership.

There has been an increase in the U.S. of practicing Wicca and other Earth-based religions that worship or place value on the feminine. Researchers could look at what this means, both for “traditional” faiths and society as a whole, as well as for the women who practice these neo-ancient religions. How are they practiced differently in the 21st century? Why?

Researchers could look at how religion is practiced in the U.S. and other countries and how national, cultural or legal practices affect women and do or don’t reflect the intent of religion. Those interested in women’s studies can work with the Center to foster awareness of women’s history and role in the workplace, which is related to religious beliefs and roles. We could study how women experience faith and how it impacts their lives, history and the future.

Articles

Books

  • Women, Gender, and Radical Religion in Early Modern Europe. Sylvia Monica Brown (ed.). BRILL, 2007.
  • Gender and Christianity in Medieval Europe: New Perspectives. Lisa M. Bitel and Felice Lifshitz (eds.). University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.
  • Contextualizing Gender in Early Christian Discourse: Thinking Beyond Thecla.Caroline Vander Stichele and Todd Penner. T & T Clark International, 2009.
  • Women’s Studies in Religion: A Multicultural Reader. Kate Bagley and Kathleen McIntosh. Prentice Hall, 2006.
  • Literature, Theology and Feminism. Heather Walton. Manchester University Press, 2008.
  • Women in Religion. Mary Pat Fisher. Longman, 2006.
  • A Feminist Philosophy of Religion. Pamela Sue Anderson. Blackwell Pub., 1997.
  • Women in scripture: a dictionary of named and unnamed women in the Hebrew Bible, the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical books, and the New Testament. Carol L. Meyers, Toni Craven and Ross Shepard Kraemer. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2000.
  • Feminism in the study of religion: a reader. Darlene M. Juschka. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2001.
  • Reason, Religion, and Morals. Frances Wright. Humanity Books, 2004.
  • Encyclopedia of women in religious art. Diane Apostolos-Cappadona. Oxford University Press, 1998.
  • Man’s Dominion: The Rise of Religion and the Eclipse of Women’s Rights. Sheila Jeffreys. Routledge, 2011.
  • Faith, Belief, and Scripture: Anglicanism and Homosexuality. Rob James. Common Ground Publishing, 2011.
  • Women, gender, religion: a reader. Elizabeth Anne Castelli and Rosamond C. Rodman (eds.). Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.
  • Encountering the transnational: women, Islam and the politics of interpretation. Meena Sharify-Funk. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2008.
  • A Biblical Case for Equality. Arden Thiessen Essence Publishing, 2002.
  • Being Feminist, Being Christian: Essays from Academia. Bettina Tate Pedersen. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
  • Gender, Religion and Diversity: Cross-cultural Perspectives. Ursula King(ed.). Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd., 2005.

Case studies

Codes of ethics

Journals

More links

Professional associations and faith groups

Recent research

  • Bettencourt, Kathryn E. Fitzpatrick; Tammi Vacha-Haase and Zinta S. Byrne. “Older and Younger Adults’ Attitudes Toward Feminism: The Influence of Religiosity, Political Orientation, Gender, Education, and Family.” Sex Roles. Vol. 64, Nos. 11-12 (June 2011): 863-74.
  • Levy, Yagil. “The Clash between Feminism and Religion in the Israeli Military: A Multilayered Analysis.” Social Politics. Vol. 17, No. 2 (2010): 185-209.
  • Razavi, Shahra and Anne Jenichen. “The Unhappy Marriage of Religion and Politics: problems and pitfalls for gender equality.” Third World Quarterly. Vol. 31, No. 6 (2010): 833-50.
  • Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. “Mormon Women in the History of Second-Wave Feminism.” Dialogue – A Journal of Mormon Thought. Vol. 43, No. 2 (Summer 2010): 45-63.

Syllabi

Veterinary

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About the discipline

Those entering the veterinary field may learn more about their human and animal customers by understanding religious beliefs. Humans have a long history of sharing their lives with animals, from the Egyptians, who often were mummified with their pets so they could accompany them in eternity; to domesticated animals that provided wool or eggs; and today’s array of household pets. Religious beliefs may define how individuals feel about the animals in their care, as well as their ethical beliefs about how animals should be treated, especially in times of illness or death.

Religious beliefs: Many faiths teach respect for the creatures that share Earth with humans. A long debate in Christianity has been over interpretation of Genesis 1:28 in the Old Testament, in which God blessed the man and woman he had created (Adam and Eve) and told them: “Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.”

Scholars and believers have tried to discern whether “dominion” means using animals for humans’ purposes, or that humans bear responsibility for a benevolent stewardship of animals. As people’s relationships with animals have grown more emotional in the modern time, and awareness of environmental issues has increased, the stewardship perspective has grown popular.

The most famous Christian saint associated with animals is St. Francis of Assisi, who renounced his monetary prosperity to live a life of poverty amid the natural world. He praised the earth, sun, plants and animals and was known for preaching to birds and picking worms off the road and carrying them to safety. Founder of the Franciscan Order, St. Francis is known as the patron saint of animals and is a favorite among many Catholics. Christian churches of several denominations mark St. Francis of Assisi’s feast day on Oct. 4 with blessings of congregation and community members’ pets.

In Islam, a saying of Muhammad, known as a “hadith,” tells of the prophet being asked whether those who are kind to animals are rewarded. Muhammad reportedly answered: “There is a reward for kindness to every living animal or human.” He also related the stories of a woman who was condemned to hell because she imprisoned a cat until it died; and a man who gave a very thirsty dog a drink, and was forgiven of his sins by God. If they must kill an animal, Muslims are commanded to do so in a manner that causes the least amount of fright and suffering.

Issues today: Veterinarians will encounter similar issues as human doctors in terms of determining patients’ quality of life and recommending life-sustaining or life-ending treatments or technologies. Understanding that humans may have particular feelings about their animals because of personal or religious beliefs will inform a veterinarian in recommending treatment. Recent studies show that people often grieve the death of a pet in the same way they grieve the loss of a family member. Veterinarians can be sensitive to the grief process, and understand that religious beliefs may also inform people’s views about the afterlife and whether animals may share it with human believers. Veterinarians also may face ethical issues of when to try to preserve an animal’s life, the mounting financial cost to human owners of animal health care, and expert opinions about animal abuse and proper care.

Articles

Books

  • A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science, and Ethics. Paul Waldauand Kimberley Patton (eds.). Columbia University Press, 2006.
  • The Tao of Bow Wow: Understanding and Training Your Dog the Taoist Way.Deborah Wood. Dell, 1998.
  • Every Living Thing: Daily Use of Animals in Ancient Israel. Oded Borowski. Altamira Press, 1997.
  • Yuki, Temple Dog: How a California Pound Dog Became Guardian of a Japanese Buddhist Temple. Yuki. Buddhist Books Intl., 1997.
  • Animal Ethics in Context. Claire Palmer. Columbia University Press, 2010.
  • Applied Animal Ethics. Leland Shapiro. Cengage Learning, 1999.
  • Veterinary ethics: an introduction. Giles Legood (ed.). Continuum International Publishing Group, 2000.
  • The Ethics of Animal Experimentation: A Critical Analysis and Constructive Christian Proposal. Donna Yarri. American Academy of Religion, 2005.
  • The Specter of Speciesism: Buddhist and Christian Views of Animals. Paul Waldau. Oxford University Press, 2001.
  • Gutleben, C. (Ed). (2015). Every Living Thing: How Pope Francis, Evangelicals and other Christian Leaders are inspiring all of us to Care for Animals. Ann Arbor: Front Edge Publishing.

Case studies

Codes of ethics

Journals

More links

Professional associations and groups

Recent research

  • Dickinson, George E.; Paul D. Roof and Karin W. Roof. “End-Of-Life Issues in United States Veterinary Schools.” Society and Animals. Vol. 18, No. 2 (2010): 152-62.
  • Rollin, Bernard E. “Euthanasia, Moral Stress, and Chronic Illness in Veterinary Medicine.” Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice. Vol. 41, No. 3 (May 2011): 651-9.

Syllabi

Textiles

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About the discipline

Clothing – both in the United States and other cultures – is often dictated or influenced by religious belief. Understanding religious beliefs can help a distributor or designer work within those social mores on a local or global scale while also creating a product that is unique and worth buying. Some religions might object to clothing made with certain types of fibers, whereas others might criticize the way it is worn. A background in religion helps a person or company in this field navigate those issues and ensure long-term profitability and distribution goals as they seek to bring a brand into the market. 

Religion and textiles: Religion has long had an impact on beliefs about textiles and how they are used. For example, the Old Testament banned wearing garments woven of two kinds of material. In Jewish law, it is forbidden to wear a garment containing wool and linen. The Navajos believe that the art of weaving was passed on to them by Spider Woman, who spun thread and wove on a loom made for her by her husband, Spider Man, from earth and lightening bolts. Many American Indian tribes are known for weaving symbols about their tribal identities or beliefs into textiles such as rugs and blankets.

While black clothing is a symbol of mourning and white is associated with purity in many Western cultures, in Hindu, Buddhist and many African beliefs, white clothing is a sign of mourning. In Islamic burial rituals, the body is wrapped in a shroud of clean white cloth. Clothing is also used to act out one’s faith and religious identity. Sikh and Hindu women will often wear a sari, a decorated piece of cloth wrapped around the body. Some Muslim women wear “hijab,” a cover worn on the head, face or body, or more broadly defined as clothing that communicates modesty, privacy and morality.

A growing trend is modest but fashionable clothing – particularly for young women – that allows consumers such as Muslims, Mormons and others to dress in contemporary fashions while also fulfilling religious beliefs about modesty. Research could examine religion in terms of fashion and values, the styles of clothing it dictates, the process in which textiles are made, and how textiles represent changing beliefs and markets as well as traditions.

Economics and ethics: Religion and ethics has been tied to textiles throughout U.S. history. Slavery in the South was tied to the labor that helped people produce large amounts of cotton. Later, it was the use of children and deplorable working conditions in U.S. textile mils during the industrial revolution. Today, there are issues related to economic development in other nations related to cheap textile production. Nations such as the United States pay low wages to textile workers in other countries and buy textiles at inexpensive costs to sell them at discount prices in the United States, which can depress local economies. The U.S. also has the ability to depress other markets with cheap textiles, an ethical issue for those attempting to sell in other markets as well as a business issue for those attempting to open new markets.

Current Issues: An interesting movement in recent years is the use of free-market trade to benefit developing countries. One such company is Edun, which uses profits from clothing sales to benefit social causes and uses organic fabrics. Another line, launched by Bono of the rock band U2 and called “Red,” uses profits from sales to help fund AIDS treatment in African nations. Such “business with a social conscience” enterprises are becoming attractive to both investors and those working in the industry, showing that fashion sense does not have to be compromised by social conscience.

Researchers have pointed to the trend of consumers’ desire to serve social good, which gives those working in textiles an opportunity to capture a new market and make themselves distinct from other clothing sellers by catering to this movement. Research in this field could look at the factors in this social trend, chart its sustainability and help create new economies of scale that would make this area profitable while also accomplishing the supporters’ aims.

Articles

Books

  • Islam and the Veil: Theoretical and Regional Contexts. Theodore Gabriel and Rabiha Hannan. Continuum, 2011.
  • Medieval fabrications: dress, textiles, clothwork, and other cultural imaginings. E. Jane Burns. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
  • Berg Encyclopedia of World Dress and Fashion (Ten-volume set). Berg Publishing. 2010.
  • Woven Wonder: The Tradition of Indian Textiles. AshaRani Mathur. Rupa & Co, 2002.
  • Weaving, Veiling and Dressing: Textiles and Their Metaphors in the Late Middle Ages. Kathryn M. Rudy. Brepols Publishers, 2007.
  • Five Generations of Indonesian Textiles. Ruth Barnes and Mary Hunt Kahlenberg (eds.). Prestel USA, 2010.
  • Ecclesiastical Dress in the Medieval Near East. Karel C. Innemee. Brill Academic Pub, 1997.
  • Designing Ecclesiastical Stitched Textiles. Beryl Dean. Search Press(UK), 1993.
  • Shaker Textile Arts. Beverly Gordon. UPNE, 1980.
  • Quilts and Women of the Mormon Migrations. Mary Bywater Cross. Thomas Nelson, 1997.
  • Clothed in Integrity: Weaving Just Cultural Relations and the Garment Industry. Barbara Paleczny. Canadian Corp. Studies in Religion, 2000.
  • Wrapped in Pride: Ghanaian Kente and African American Identity. Doran H. Ross, et all. UCLA, 1998.
  • Silk and religion: an exploration of material life and the thought of people, AD 600-1200. Xinru Liu. Oxford University Press US, 1998.
  • The Islamic Modern Dress. M. Mutahari. Kazi Publications (3rd ed.), 2007.
  • Undressing religion: commitment and conversion from a cross-cultural perspective. Linda B. Arthur. Berg Publishers, 2000.
  • Textiles Today: A Global Survey of Trends and Traditions. Chloë Colchester. Thames & Hudson, 2007.

Case studies

  • Adegbite, Stephen Akinade. “Factors influencing technology innovations in the indigenous textile weaving industry in southwestern Nigeria.” International Journal of Technology, Policy & Management. Vol. 11, No. 2 (2011): 155-72.
  • Chi, Ting. “Building a sustainable supply chain: an analysis of corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices in the Chinese textile and apparel industry.” Journal of the Textile Insitute. Vol. 102, No. 10 (2011): 837-48.

Codes of ethics

Journals

More links

Professional associations and faith groups

Recent research

  • Holscher, Kathleen. “Contesting the Veil in America: Catholic Habits and the Controversy over Religious Clothing in the United States.” Journal of Church and State. Published online, Feb. 2011.
  • Witcher, Brittany, “Identity and Fashion: A Look at Jordanian Christian Women and How Their Identity is Portrayed Through Their Clothing.” ISP Collection. 2010.

Syllabi

Statistics

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About the discipline

Statistics is a valuable tool in understanding religious trends and the role of religion in society. A mathematical science, it collects, analyses, interprets, explains and presents data, making it useful to a variety of academic disciplines, including religion. There is a growing interest and need for religious statistics that record the percentage of various faiths in cities, schools, professions, or nations; as well as to record trends in religious beliefs and viewpoints on current issues and events.

Statistics on religion are useful to religious organizations, schools, academics, governments and even politicians. There are many needs and opportunities for using both methodological and collaborative approaches in collecting and analyzing information about religion.

Using statistics: Statistics and religion have recently gained attention due to Harvard sociologist Robert D. Putnam’s book, “Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community.” Putnam and a team of researchers analyzed data and used quantitative measures such as survey methods to reach conclusions about social capital (the “value of people dealing with people”). Based on the statistics, Putnam argues that civil society is breaking down as Americans become more disconnected from their families, neighbors, communities and the republic. Putnam devotes a chapter to religion, noting statistical ties between religious attendance and higher rates of engagement in civic life. However, he also found that church attendance is declining along with other kinds of civic engagement.

What is useful for those interested in religion is that declining church attendance appears to follow the same trends as other declining voluntary and membership organizations. This means it is unlikely to be affected by developments specific to religion. Looking for root causes or solutions only within the religious sphere overlooks a larger problem of disengagement, Putnam argues. This is useful information for religious organizations that are losing membership and trying to find innovative ways to attract youth and new members. It is also informative for those who want to increase involvement in civic life and its attendant benefits to individuals and society. If those who attend religious institutions are more likely to engage, becoming involved in religion could be a catalyst for more engagement.

Challenges today: Those collecting and analyzing information about religion will find it is difficult to obtain information about people’s religion. The U.S. Census, which counts people and many characteristics, does not ask people their religious affiliation and employers are not supposed to ask potential employees. Sources of statistics on religion are also inconsistent. Results differ based on how questions are asked, how people are contacted, and their options for response.

Some traditions – such as African-American denominations – are typically underrepresented because of difficulty obtaining numbers. Numbers are also difficult to compare because religions track membership differently. The Southern Baptist Convention, for example, counts people who are baptized; the United Methodist Church counts people who are confirmed; mosques don’t require membership so any counts are only estimates; and only about half of Jews in the United States are affiliated with synagogues. Some houses of worship make estimates on the number of people at an average service; others count those who are on the membership rolls. Categories can also be problematic: Mormons consider themselves Christians but many Christians do not. Messianic Jews considers themselves Jews but many Jews consider them Christians.

Some religious groups are so statistically small, or their adherents so distributed, that they are difficult to count, and there are sometimes language barriers for faiths whose adherents are primarily immigrants. Those collecting information need to also bear in mind that people frequently lie when asked about religion, and that numbers provided by faiths about their own faith can be inflated.

Religion statistics, like all statistics, carry with them the need for caution about how they are used. It is not unusual for religion statistics to be used to maximize or minimize trends, based on the agenda of the faith or agency doing the reporting. Statistics can also be used and misused in business and government. Still, there remains a great need for a more consistent and detailed collection of information about religious affiliation and belief. There are employment opportunities for statisticians looking at religion in academia, government and among religious entities. Statisticians could also add questions on religion, spirituality, affiliation and beliefs when collecting data in other fields to gain further insight into religious belief and its impact; and to better understand and serve these communities.

Articles

Books

  • A Convergence of Civilizations: The Transformation of Muslim Societies Around the World. Youssef Courbage, Emmanuel Todd and George Holoch, Jr. Columbia University Press, 2011.
  • Social Statistics for a Diverse Society. Chava Frankfort-Nachmias and Anna Leon-Guerrero. Pine Forge Press, 2008.
  • Religion and Domestic Violence, Information and Resources, Statistics. National Resource Center on Domestic Violence, 2007
  • A Summary View of All Religions; Including the Creeds, Statistics, and Benevolent Operations of the Principal Protestant Sects. Daniel Wise and J. Porter. Boston Type and Stereotype Foundry, 1840.
  • Statistics for the Social Sciences. R. Mark Sirkin. Sage Publications, Inc., 2005.
  • The American Christian record: containing the history, confession of faith, and statistics of each religious denomination in the United States and Europe.Washington: D.C., Buell & Blanchard & Lea, 2009.
  • Strange Notes on Modern Statistics and Traditional Popular Religion in China: Further Reflections on the Importance of Sinology for Social Change as Applied to China. (L. Mende and M. Von Siebert (eds.). Harrassowitz Verlag, 2000.
  • Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion. Rodney Stark and Roger Finke. University of California Press, 2000.
  • Measuring the Immeasurable: The Scientific Case for Spirituality. Daniel Golemanet al. Sounds True, Incorporated, 2008.
  • Shall the Religious Inherit the Earth?: Demography and Politics in the Twenty-First Century. Eric Kaufmann. Profile Books, 2011.

Case studies

  • Akresh, Ilana Redstone. “Immigrants’ religious participation in the United States.”Ethnic and Racial Studies. Vol. 34, No. 4 (2011): 643-61.
  • Andrabi, Tahir; Jishnu Das, Asim Ijaz Khwaja and Tristan Zajonc. “Madrassa Metrics: The Statistics and Rhetoric of Religious Enrollment in Religion in Process of Globalization.” Beyond Crisis: Re-Evaluating Pakistan. Naveeda Khan (ed.). Routledge, 2010.
  • Aspinall, Edward; Sebastian Dettman and Eve Warburton. “When religion trumps ethnicity: a regional case study from Indonesia.” South East Asia Research. Vol. 19, No. 1 (March 2011): 27-58.

Codes of ethics

Journals

More links

Professional associations and faith groups

Syllabi

Space and physics

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About the discipline

Seeking truth: Religion and physics share in common that in both, practitioners seek to learn what is true, while also dealing with unseen realities whose existence cannot immediately be proved. Existence is often inferred based on effects in the visible world. Whether for a higher power, a deeper understanding of tiny particles or an unseen astronomical object, the search requires a sense of mystery, desire for discovery and belief that there is something to be found. Discoveries or convictions in these fields define our understanding of the origin of the universe and our place in it.

Origin of the universe: Believing in that which is not seen and explanations of the origin of the universe are common in religious ideology. For example, the biblical letter writer in Hebrews 11:3 says, “By faith we understand that the universe was formed at God’s command, so that what is seen was not made out of what was visible.” Islam’s Koran states: “Then He turned to the heaven when it was smoke … (Koran: 41:11) … Have not those who disbelieved known that the heavens and earth were one connected entity, then We separated them?” (Koran 21:30)

Science and religion: Physics studies the structure and properties of matter and transformations of energy that establish the fundamental laws of nature. Astronomy studies phenomena outside the limits of the Earth, applying physics to interpret observable phenomena surrounding the Earth and the distant limits of the universe. Aerospace engineering often provides ways to further explore these environments.

Theologians and religious believers often infer the existence of God from various facts, affirming that belief because His existence makes sense of their experiences and knowledge. Although they have a different perspective, physicists deal with a similar world of nonvisible (such as gluons or quarks) and possibly non-existent (such as the strings in “string theory”) objects. Neither deals with concrete “proofs” in the everyday world but does try to make sense of events that can objectively be said to have occurred.

People of faith might observe that the laws of physics have remarkably allowed the evolution of intelligent human life in the universe – perhaps too remarkably to not reflect a master creator. Others might argue that scientific discoveries reveal only a fundamental natural law. Yet there is also always much more than meets the eye. Research in quantum physics, for example, has shown that tiny particles behave differently than expected, based on theories from the behavior of larger particles. John Polkinghorne, an Anglican priest and particle physicist, argues that contemporary research shows the universe to be much richer and less predictable – and perhaps more open to divine influence – that scientific theories suggest.

Some would argue that physics is a religion itself, because of its steadfast belief in the laws and knowability of the universe and its forces. Others would argue that it is the diametrical opposite. One school of thought portrays physics as the universal religion, noting that laws of physics and mathematics are fundamentally the same around the world, while religions vary. Proponents argue that making understanding of the simple and irrefutable laws of nature a worldwide religion would eliminate global religious strife.

Oppenheimer and the bomb: Another religious reference in physics is the oft-quoted citation of the Hindu sacred text, the Bhagavad-Gita (500 B.C.-50 B.C), by physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer upon witnessing the first atomic bomb test. Known as the father of the atomic bomb, Oppenheimer reportedly thought of this Sanskrit verse after seeing the all-illuminating flash of the atomic weapon at the Trinity test site on July 16, 1945: “If the radiance of a thousand suns, were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the Mighty One.” He said years later that another verse from the Bhagavad-Gita also entered his head at that time. In it, the Supreme Being is trying to persuade Prince Arjuna that he should do his duty. To impress him, he takes on his multi-armed form and says, “Now, I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.”

Oppenheimer, a 1925 Harvard graduate in chemistry, is best known for his work in theoretical physics and as scientific director of the Manhattan Project to develop the first nuclear weapons. He also suggested the existence of what we now call black holes. What is less known is that he was interested in religion, learned Sanskrit and read the Bhagavad-Gita in its original text, citing it as one of the most influential books to shape his life philosophy.

Oppenheimer also reportedly gave the Trinity Site its name, based on a set of holy sonnets on the “three-person’d God” (Father, Son and Holy Spirit) by English poet John Donne, believing it set a proper tone for the experiment. Nobel Prize winner Isidor Rabi (1898-1988) said Oppenheimer’s interest in religion “resulted in a feeling of mystery of the universe.” Though Oppenheimer saw physics clearly, Rabi said, he also turned “away from the hard, crude methods of theoretical physics into a mystical realm of broad intuition.”

Issues today: Those working in physics face ethical issues over nuclear power, safety, domestic energy, weapons and nuclear buildup. Like the physicists and politicians of the 1940s, they may face tough ethical decisions, such as whether more lives are saved or lost through introducing nuclear warfare; or providing less expensive energy and allowing more customers to afford power in a form less likely to contribute to “greenhouse gases,” but that in an accident could cause more critical environmental and human harm.

Amid wars and threats of war around the world (some with nuclear capabilities, and some with religious overtones), understanding of religion, diverse cultures, beliefs and identities is important when negotiating between nations in which faith plays a strong role. Researchers could study whether and how much religious beliefs impact support for nuclear, physics and astronomy research; how discoveries compare with religious doctrine; or how much religion and science impact people’s view of their place in the world.

From the perspective of astronomy, researchers should be aware that some religious believers adamantly discredit discoveries of other universes, solar systems and planets that may foster life, because of beliefs that God created humans only on Earth. At the very least, the possibility of life on other planets poses challenges to some religious beliefs, and could prompt believers to question whether the same God created all life in all universes or whether those inhabitants have the same opportunities for faith and redemption according to Earthly religious beliefs. There are also religious movements that believe life on Earth is the result of life on other planets, or that religious myths, beliefs and history tell of visits from superior extra-terrestrial beings rather than divine creation and intervention.

Those working in these fields can understand that colleagues may come at the study from religious or non-religious backgrounds, which is especially helpful when working in multidisciplinary teams. Researchers may want to look at whether religious affiliation or type of religion impacts views about these sciences or how they are practiced. Scientists can also study how what they learn changes culture and challenges or supports existing beliefs.

Articles

Books

  • Einstein and Religion: Physics and Theology. Max Jammer. Princeton University Press, 2002.
  • Theology and modern physics. Peter Edward Hodgson. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005.
  • In Creative Evolution: A Physicist’s Resolution between Darwinism and Intelligent Design. Amit Goswami. Quest Books, 2008.
  • Islam’s Quantum Question: Reconciling Muslim Tradition and Modern Science. Nidhal Guessoum. I.B. Tauris, 2011.
  • Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion, Considered With Reference to Natural Theology. William Prout. Elibron Classics Series ed., 2011.
  • Religion And Chemistry; Or, Proofs Of God’s Plan In The Atmosphere And Its Element. Josiah Parsons Cooke. Kessinger Publishing, 2007 (orig. published 1864).
  • Science and Religion: A Critical Survey. Holmes Rolston. Random House, 1987.
  • What is and What Will Be: Integrating Science and Religion. Paul Budnik. Mountain Math Software, 2006.
  • Science and Religion, 400 B.C. to A.D. 1550: From Aristotle to Copernicus. Edward Grant. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
  • World in Process, Interconnection and Creativity in the New Physics. John A. Jungerman. SUNY Press, 2000
  • The Religion of Technology: The Divinity of Man and the Spirit of Invention.D. F. Noble. Alfred A. Knopf, 1997.
  • Ancient Astronomy, Modern Science and Sacred Cosmology. John Wood. Kessinger Publishing, 2009 (orig. published 1882).
  • Brother Astronomer: Adventures of a Vatican Scientist. Guy Consolmagno. McGraw-Hill, 2000.
  • Hidden Dimensions: The Unification of Physics and Consciousness. B. Alan Wallace. Columbia University Press, 2007.
  • Einstein and Religion: Physics and Theology. Max Jammer. Princeton University Press, 1999.

Case studies

Codes of ethics

Journals

More links

Professional associations and faith groups

Recent research

  • Duquette, Jonathan. “‘Quantum Physics and Vedanta’: A Perspective from Bernard D’Espagnat’s Scientific Realism.” Journal of Religion & Science. Vol. 46, No. 3 (Sept. 2011): 620-38.
  • Murphy, Nancey. “Cosmopolis: How Astronomy Affects Philosophies of Human Nature and Religion.” Astronomy and Civilization in the New Environment. Vol. 107, No. 3 (2011): 175-85.

Syllabi

Sociology and social work

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About the discipline

The sociology program at MU is geared toward improving life in communities, especially those that are considered vulnerable. Some of the problems that communities face are cultural in the sense of a strong diversity in religious or ethical differences that act as barriers rather than bridges between people. Understanding religious differences can help bring about social change. The Center’s focus on religious literacy in the form of training and education can be a valuable tool for communities with high amounts of diversity.

Family relationships: As our culture grows increasingly diverse, there are more challenges and issues of differences involving religion. The differences are now not only between families, but also within families, as children choose to marry outside of faith or abandon the faith in which they were raised. Learning how to strengthen communities from within in a culture that values religion will become a tougher task for the practitioner as diversity increases. This intra-family exchange also will have an effect on public life. Improved literacy about religion in both contexts helps people become more educated about our differences in a way that builds up communities, making them stronger and more efficient.

Practitioners who understand the religious climate in which families operate can build trust with the family, better understand a family’s needs and help provide better social services. This may include knowledge of the language the family uses or customs about generational seniority, health care or views toward accepting help, based on their religious or cultural beliefs. Policies can recognize differences, champion diversity and promote cultural awareness, as families of all types and backgrounds continue to shape today’s culture.

Workplace relationships: Business bonds also have the potential to strengthen communities both in terms of economic opportunity and in relationship building. The Center is working to educate those in the professions about the types of religious diversity they will face in the workplace to make workplaces and communities stronger. Seeing those smaller communities as building blocks for the community at large can give a sociology researcher a chance to partner with the Center or researchers in other disciplines to do work that advances these aims.

Global and community relationships: Sociologists and social workers can look to religious groups for areas to study or models of social service in both a local and global setting. Religious groups often spearhead intervention in impoverished areas to improve quality of life. Some efforts are evangelistic in nature, others are not overtly so. Intervention ranges from health-care outreach and food boxes in local communities to providing medical care and building homes, improving sanitation and teaching indigenous people sustainable agriculture and new enterprises to overcome poverty at a global level.

Leadership: Leadership in local, state and federal social service is crucial, as policy matters affect resources available to individuals and families. Leaders in social services may want to work with or look to religious groups for assistance in understanding and fulfilling community needs. Religious leaders often have contact with a community and organizational skills that can be useful to sociologists studying the community and social workers serving the community.

Center projects: Fellows with the Center for Religion, the Professions & the Public have done research measuring religiousity/spirituality and: well-being among elderly whites, African-Americans and American Indians; social support and well-being among people living with HIV/AIDS in rural communities; social support and rural elderly individuals; and social support and psychological well-being among older adults in rural areas.

The Center worked with MU sociologists to design a survey of 400 citizens’ experience with professionals on matters related to religion and spirituality, as well as a parallel survey focused on professionals from eight professions. The Center is applying for a National Institutes of Health grant to study spirituality and health risk behaviors in adolescents, through its Spirituality and Health research project.

Use of media: The Center’s affiliation with the School of Journalism can be of interest to a researcher in sociology. The media can be a tool for education and empowerment, performing “bridging and bonding” roles in communities. Researchers can look at how religious literacy can be enhanced through media coverage or strategic communication campaigns in a way that can cause change in communities.

A current research project focuses on how to use media to better inform African-American women about breast cancer examinations. Religious institutions can act as clearinghouses for information and be distributors of material about health campaigns and other social services. Research could examine how changes in media coverage patterns help change communities.

Issues today: Researchers can compare and contrast the needs of families and individuals in rural and urban settings, and how these different settings may utilize religion similarly or differently to solve social problems. Coursework and training can be implemented that teaches practitioners about working with families in settings or languages with which they are familiar, to build trust and better understand specific religious beliefs and needs.

Researchers could look at the role of religious organizations in providing social services. What percentage of social services such as food for hungry families, addiction counseling, help finding homes, child care or health clinics are provided through religious institutions? How much do one’s religious beliefs play a role in the sense of responsibility for one’s community? Do the presence of houses of worship help define community? Researchers can work with the Center on inter-disciplinary projects to study and improve awareness in these areas.

Articles

Books

  • The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures by Anne Fadiman (New York, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997).
  • Sects, Cults, and Spiritual Communities: A Sociological Analysis. William W. Zellner and Marc Petrowsky. Praeger, 1998.
  • Spirituality and Religion in Social Work Practice: Decision Cases With Teaching Notes. T. Laine Scales. Council on Social Work Education, 2002.
  • Postmodernism, Religion and the Future of Social Work. Jean A Pardeck, John W Murphy and Roland Meinert. Routledge, 1998.
  • The sociology of religion. Max Weber. Beacon Press, 1993.
  • Sociology of religion: contemporary developments. Kevin J. Christiano, William H. Swatos and Peter Kivisto. Rowman Altamira, 2002.
  • An introduction to the sociology of religion: classical and contemporary perspectives. Inger Furseth and Pål Repstad. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006.
  • Handbook of the Sociology of Religion. Michele Dillon (ed.) Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  • Religion, Families, and Health: Population-Based Research in the United States. Christopher Ellison, Robert Hummer, John Bartkowski and Lisa Pearce. Rutgers University Press, 2010.
  • Conversions: Two Family Stories from the Reformation and Modern America. Craig Harline. Yale University Press, 2011.
  • Religion Matters: What Sociology Teaches Us About Religion in Our World. Michael O. Emerson, William A. Mirola and Susanne C. Monahan. Prentice Hall, 2010.
  • Are Muslims Distinctive? A Look at the Evidence. M. Steven Fish. Oxford University Press USA, 2011.

Case studies

  • Cadge, Wendy; Peggy Levitt and David Smilde. “De-Centering and Re-Centering: Rethinking Concepts and Methods in the Sociological Study of Religion.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. Vol. 50, No. 3 (Sept. 2011): 437-49.
  • Hayford, Sarah R. and Jenny Trinitapoli. “Religious Differences in Female Genital Cutting: A Case Study from Burkina Faso.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. Vol. 50, No. 2 (June 2011): 252-71.
  • Peifer, Jared L. “The Economics and Sociology of Religious Giving: Instrumental Rationality or Communal Bonding?” Social Forces. Vol. 88, No. 4 (June 2010): 1569-94.

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Romance languages

by

About the discipline

Those with an understanding of Romance languages and the current social, business, political and economic climates of nations influenced by these languages are at an advantage when engaging in business or other professions in these regions.

Romance languages are descended from Latin, with more than 600 million native speakers worldwide, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and Africa, as well as in smaller regions scattered through the world. Knowledge of the practices, customs, languages and “intangibles” in areas where French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish are spoken is important in gaining an accurate interpretation of events in business, education and media.

The regions where these languages developed are influenced by a long history of religious events, from wars between Catholics and Protestants throughout Europe, the expulsion of Jews from France during World War II and Spain during the Spanish Inquisition, Muslim rule of Spain for several centuries, and the rise of Roman Catholicism that would eventually be based at the Vatican in Italy. Latin, the language of the Roman Empire, spread with Christianity throughout Europe, penetrating new lands and evolving into Romance languages we know today.

Language and religion: Fluency in Romance languages means being able to read influential works in their original texts, which can lead to a deeper understanding of philosophical and religious ideas. Examples include: Dante Alighieri’s “The Divine Comedy,” which was written in his native Italian. The account of the inferno, purgatory and paradise, based on a vision he claimed to have had in 1300, describes his travels through hell, purgatory and heaven. Dante’s vivid descriptions of the descent into hell and ascension to heaven have influenced religious thought and artistic interpretations for centuries.

French philosophers Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre and Michel Foucault offered more modern critiques of the search for truth and meaning, from existentialist or post-modernist views. In 1948, the Roman Catholic Church placed Sartre’s complete works on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books). Their philosophies explored the search for a meaning of life, and – though they came to different conclusions – their questions are ones religions attempt to address as well.

Translations and influences: During the Protestant Reformation and with the rise of the printing press, the Bible was translated into vernacular languages so that regular people – not only priests or Church leadership – could read the texts. The first complete translation from the originals into Spanish was published in 1569; French in 1530; Italian in 1471; and Portuguese, beginning in 1644 and completed some 60 years later. These translations occurred during times of prosperity and colonization for these nations, which spread Christianity and its texts to the Americas, Africa and Asia. The influence of this colonization and Christian faith is evident today as both Christianity and Spanish are long established in Latin American countries. Mexico, for example, has the largest population of Spanish speakers in the world and is home to some 75 million Catholics.

In addition to Latin, the Spanish language was influenced by Arabic during the time of the Moors, who were Muslim and ruled Spain and much of the Iberian Peninsula, beginning in the year 711. Many places on the peninsula have names derived from Arabic, most commonly on the Eastern Coast and region of Andalusia in Spain and southern Portugal. Over the centuries, Spanish borrowed many words from Arabic, including: alcoba (alcove, room), alfombra (carpet), guitarra (guitar); alcazar (fortress), alcalde (mayor); asesino (assassin), tarifa (tariff, fee); arroz (rice), espinaca (spinach), naranja (orange), café (coffee); alcohol (alcohol), alkali (alkali), adobe (adobe), laca (lacquer); cero (zero), cifra (cipher, figure), álgebra (algebra), cénit (zenith); and expressions such as ojalá (“may it be that…”, originally “May Allah want…”). An estimated 5,000 words in Spanish are of Arabic origin. Many of these words, especially in the scientific field, were passed on to other languages, including English, which received most of them by way of French.

Issues today: Languages change and adapt to reflect the population and times in which they develop. They reflect their origin, as well as the blending of cultures that occurs when they move to new regions, such as French in the Caribbean, Spanish in much of Latin America and the Philippines, and Portuguese in Brazil. Understanding the history and foundation of Romance languages and how they developed leads to insight into cultures that is useful in today’s globally diverse socio-political, religious and business environment.

Articles

Books

  • Language, culture, and society: key topics in linguistic anthropology. Christine Jourdan and Kevin Tuite. Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  • Converting Words: Maya in the Age of the Cross. William F. Hanks. University of California Press, 2010.
  • On the Latin Language. Marcus Terentius Varro (translated by R.G. Kent). Wm Heinemann Ltd., Harvard Univ. Press.
  • The Latin Language and Christianity. Paul Berry. Edwin Mellen Press, 2004.
  • Pray It in Latin, Louis Pizzuti. Lulu.com, 2006.
  • Reading French: A Guide for Students of Religion and Theology. K. Janet Ritch. Clements Publishing, 2006.
  • The politics of language: conflict, identity and cultural pluralism in comparative perspective. Carol L. Schmid. Oxford University Press US, 2001.
  • Remains of Arabic in the Spanish and Portugese Languages. Stephen Weston. Nabu Press, 2011.
  • Language, religion and national identity in Europe and the Middle East: a historical study. John Myhill. Jon Benjamins Publishing Company, 2006.
  • Monolingualism and bilingualism: lessons from Canada and Spain. Sue Wright. Multilingual Matters, 1996.
  • Local religion in colonial Mexico. Martin Austin Nesvig. UNM Press, 2006.
  • Rereading the Renaissance: Petrarch, Augustine and the Language of Humanism.Carol Everhart Quillen. University of Michigan Press, 1997.

Case studies

  • “Tradition and change in language and discourse: three case studies.” Southwest Journal of Linguistics, June 6, 2001.
  • “Global Knowledge-based Policy in Fragmented Societies: the case of curriculum reform in French-speaking Belgium” by Eric Mangez. European Journal of Education. Vol. 45, No. 1 (March 2010): 60-73.

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