DISCIPLINES: • History • Social Studies • Social Sciences

History and religion: Religion has shaped much in the way of world history on every continent, from the beginning of recorded time. It has led and suppressed the search for information; been the impetus for and result of conquest; provided guidance for civic laws and engagement; and defined national identities.

Perhaps the greatest benefit the Center on Religion & the Professions can provide is lending historical background to current problems concerning religion and public life. Education about history and religion is important in helping people to become more aware of religious faiths in their workplace and in the public arena. Understanding why we sometimes have biases toward or against certain faiths or cultures is often steeped in historical patterns, and identifying those for the purpose of education is useful.

Religion and study of history: A hot topic in religious scholarship is the influence of non-religious researchers. Much has been made of the Jesus Seminar, for example, which brought together scholars for the purpose of determining what actually happened in the life of Jesus. Religious scholars, who operate upon religious presuppositions, tend to object to purely naturalistic inquiry of a topic that deals with the supernatural. Bridging the gap in scholarship, as well as in public life, is one possible avenue of research.

Social studies: Those aiming to teach social studies in primary and secondary education can help inform new generations of youth about an increasingly complex world – made more complex by growing diversity in religion, culture, ethnicity and national identity brought close to home by global communication and national events. Incorporating pertinent religious background and impact on history, geography, economics, civics, psychology, anthropology and world religions (see related links) provides students with a better understanding of past and current events and the complex world in which we live.

Interdisciplinary work: The Center offers chances to link social science inquiry with those in other departments. Historical research or social science research can be combined with other disciplines to produce innovative research into how religion interacts with public life. Much of religious tradition has historical background that it brings to any public interaction, and identifying those traits is important.

The Center’s affiliation with the School of Journalism gives the social science researcher unique opportunities for study. Much of the work being done in journalism research is in the area of social science, utilizing MU’s PRIME lab to conduct research into how people cognitively and emotionally process media. The Center can help partner researchers to do unique studies to answer social science questions. The Center’s partnership with the School of Journalism can also help link historical researchers to ways in which journalists can be better trained in history and religion, better perform their jobs, and increase public understanding of complex issues.

Current issues: Much of what occurs in the world today needs historical background for better understanding. Religious and cultural conflicts in the Middle East and other parts of the world are based on historical factors, which often have religious ties. Researchers can study the impact of historical knowledge on people’s perceptions of current events, or more deeply research past events to provide broader insight in the present day. Researchers could track the influence of religion on historical development over time and map an arc for present religious influence on the future. They may be interested in interdisciplinary study in specific fields that are informed by history and religion.

History of Religions
International Review for the History of Religions
Journal of the American Academy of Religion
Religion, State & Society
Church History
Annual Review of the Social Sciences of Religion
Journal of Hellenic Studies
Journal of Religion & Society
Worldviews: Environment, Culture, Religion
Religion & the Public Order
Sociology of Religion
Journal of Ritual Studies

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

History of Religion in America
Samuel Pearson
Southern Illinois University-Edwardsville

Religion in American History
Paul Harris
Moorhead State University

American Academy of Religion
Association for the Study of Classical African Civilizations
Association of Muslim Social Scientists of North America
Association of Professional Jewish Genealogists
Christian Academics
Conference on Faith & History

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Human Development • Family Studies

Religion and families: When studying human families, it is important to look at whether and to what degree religion plays a role in human development and family relationships. Over centuries, the structure and expectations of human families has changed – markedly in the modern era, with the growing acceptance of divorce, single-parent families and non-traditional families. Historically, religious beliefs have influenced people’s decisions to marry, stay together and have a family, as well as the size of the family (Catholics and Mormons, for example, frequently have large families for religious reasons), styles of child-rearing and morals taught to children. Religion and religious practice can be factors that bind a family together, or enforce negative practices of child-rearing that result in isolation as children or adults. When learning about human development and families, practitioners can in many cases factor in religion as an influence for relationships, self-definition and behavior.

Research: There is a growing interest in studying religion’s role in families. According to a 2003 University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill study, adolescents in families actively involved in religious activities tend to enjoy stronger family relationships than youths whose families have less or no religious involvement. It might be that religion improves family relationships, or that youth and families already committed to high-quality family relationships choose to become more religiously involved as one strategy to pursue them. Other studies have looked at the specific types of religious behavior and frequency of occurrence in analyzing family relationships.

MU’s Center on Religion & the Professions is applying for a National Institutes of Health grant to study spirituality and health risk behaviors in adolescents, through its Spirituality and Health research project.

According to a recent poll on religion and the family conducted for Religion & Ethics Newsweekly, nearly three-quarters Americans agree that “God’s plan for marriage is one man, one woman, for life.” A strong majority (71 percent) idealize the traditional family even as divorce, cohabitation and nontraditional family situations are becoming more accepted across religious groups. Only 22 percent of Americans think divorce is a sin and almost half (49 percent) say that cohabitation is acceptable. According to the survey, the growing acceptance of divorce is also occurring among religious conservatives. Only 34 percent of evangelical Christians and 30 percent of traditional Catholics say that divorce is a sin.

Reaching out: Understanding the religious climate in which families operate can both help practitioners better serve those family and also lend insight to how to improve family lives for others. For example, understanding that early adolescents living in religiously involved families tend to enjoy better family lives may help in determining ways to boost the quality of life of U.S. adolescents. An earlier report from that project showed that religious teens were less likely to smoke, drink and use drugs and more likely to start later and use less if they did. They went to bars less often, received fewer traffic tickets, wore seat belts more, took fewer risks and fought less frequently. Shoplifting, other thefts, trespassing and arson also were rarer. Another part of the study reported that high school seniors who went to religious services at least once a week or who professed deeply held spiritual views enjoyed significantly higher self-esteem and were more positive about life than others.

Practitioners can also understand that fewer families today fit the traditional family pattern, which is a trend religious groups are addressing as well. Many churches, for example, have adapted their programs to reach out to untraditional families and retain members. Some have changed their approach to emphasize individual freedom and personal spirituality, and to actively welcome single adults and those from nontraditional families. Practitioners could also be aware of other religiously influenced trends, including the rise in students home schooled by their parents (often influenced by a desire to spend “quality” time with children, as well as select study materials and teach particular moral beliefs and points of view). Another trend is church day-care centers that are open to children not affiliated with the church. Some have religious curriculums and some do not – but many provide safe and structured child care for single mothers and working parents, providing both a service to the community and an outreach for the church.

Issues today: In addition to paying attention to the role of religion in family life and what can be learned about family relationships as a result, practitioners can understand how modern trends in family life are being addressed from a religious perspective. As the United States becomes more culturally and ethnically diverse, practitioners will also encounter different religious beliefs and family structures. They can learn to address and understand these families on their own terms, understanding the particular roles of parents, men, women, children, seniority and spiritual beliefs. Policies can recognize differences, champion diversity and promote cultural awareness, perhaps having practitioners work with families in their own language or with a practitioner of the same ethnicity. They can also learn from these families their standards of family structure and behavior, to inform their understanding of all families. Families of all types and backgrounds continue to shape today’s culture.

International Journal for the Psychology of Religion
International Journal of Children’s Spirituality

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Counseling From a Spiritual Perspective
Tim Teague
George Mason University

Spiritual Concepts for Counseling
Father Lawrence Stasyszen and Dr. Ron Faulk
Saint Gregory’s University

Family Christian Association of America

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Journalism • Magazine Journalism • Newspaper Journalism • Photojournalism • Radio Journalism • Convergence Journalism

Coverage: Religion coverage tends to be downplayed in mainstream media, both in terms of front page or top-of-newscast appeal as well the percentage of content. Still, current events have revealed that religion plays a key role in many stories considered non-religious, such as the war on terror and politics. Journalists are learning that religion can be covered in a more “wholistic” way by identifying religion as a key factor in a news story, and that it does not have to be restricted to the topic of religion.

Religion brings with it a complex set of values and behaviors that affects the way the news can be viewed. It is worthwhile to see how religion can be used on the front page to help add background and depth to stories, or to tell them in new ways. Other research ideas could examine the impact of citizen media tools such as blogging and “citizen journalism” on these areas of media coverage that are sometimes seen as lacking by the readership/viewership public.

Workplace diversity: Studies sampling media workplaces have found that the makeup of American newsrooms differs greatly from that of the public in terms of religious affiliation and practice. Many newsrooms – even in markets that lean heavily toward one or two faiths – are made up of journalists who report adhering to faiths that do not match their community or to a lack of religious faith. Given the push in newsrooms toward more diversity since the late 1980s, it is worth studying the differences in coverage in religion topics when a community’s faith makeup matches that of its local news product in comparison to one that does not match its newsroom’s faith makeup. Critics might argue that the objective standard in journalism would preclude a journalist who is either of another faith or an atheist from covering a religious topic, due to concerns of bias, but the push for more racial and ideological diversity in newsrooms clearly shows that newsrooms already believe that diversifying newsrooms leads to stronger coverage.

Ethics: Many religions value truth-telling in the highest regard, and that is compatible with journalism as a craft. But what of conflicts where religious duty clashes with newsroom values? The newsroom is a team atmosphere and team players are rewarded with promotions and better beats, and so what happens if a journalist has an ethical objection to newsroom standards? In essence, do newsroom standards supercede a person’s personal ethics in an environment where people often agree on the rules that govern journalism and are expected to adhere to them? Research might also look at how to craft a personal ethic and work by that in an era in which competition and conglomerate culture is increasingly homogenizing the way in which newsrooms clarify their values.

History: Some would argue that religion created the information revolution. Aided by the 16th-century printing press, the desire to have and to understand the record of religious thought and theology helped create what is now a mass market for information. Author Doug Underwood suggests in his book, “From Yahweh to Yahoo!,” that religion has long been a silent partner to journalism, through “religious impulses” at work in a typical newsroom. He makes the case that American journalists are rooted in the nation’s moral and religious heritage, such as believing they are serving a cause higher than commercial goals, protesting moral corruption, advocating social justice and calling for reform.

Since the invention of print, religious leaders and dissidents have long used the method to share their views and challenge others. Among the first to adopt the technology of radio in the 1920s were Christian broadcasters, who sent sermons and hymns to the masses – later following with television and the Internet. There are opportunities to work in journalism today covering religion in both secular and religious contexts. The introduction of convergence journalism aso offers new ways to communicate religious experience.

Current Issues: Religion is playing a key role in many of today’s news-making events. Understanding Islam, for example, is critical for the reporter attempting to do international coverage of the war on terror as well as coverage of home-front issues. Politics is another area where religion often mixes freely with the people involved, and a depth of understanding of the values and beliefs guiding those in power is a critical tool for providing good coverage. Research also might look at readership in terms of self-reported religious faith and examine how patterns of coverage might be altered in a way that serves that audience better.

The Center on Religion & the Professions is working on projects to improve the religious literacy of reporters by strengthening journalistic coverage of religion in the United States, as well as planning significant research about how the public views religion news coverage.

Journal of Media & Religion
Religion & American Culture
First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion & Public Life
Journal of Contemporary Religion
Journal of Religion & Society
Studia Islamica
Journal of Religion and Communication

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Religion and Media
Dr. Sean McCloud
University of North Carolina, Charlotte

Religion News Media and American Culture
Warren G. Frisina
Hofstra University

Religion and the Media
University of Georgia

American Jewish Press Association
Associated Church Press
Catholic Writers Online
Christian Academics
Christian Writers’ Group
Christians in Photojournalism
Evangelical Press Association
Faith & Values Media
Gegrapha – Fellowship of Christian Journalists
Islamic Media Foundation
Media Fellowship International
Muslim American Journalists Association
Professional Association for Christian Writers
Religion Newswriters Association
Religious Communication Association
Religion Communicators Council
Women in Christian Media
World Association for Christian Communication
World Journalism Institute

• Also see listing for Business
• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Law

Law and religion: Many of the hottest legal issues today involve religion in the public square. Current First Amendment issues include church-state separation, God in the Pledge of Allegiance, and prayer in schools and public spheres. Ethical issues sometimes related to religious beliefs are also debated, such as potential bans on abortion or types of abortion, the death penalty, and how to rule or legislate in ways that offer freedom to practice religion but not against any particular practices or atheist beliefs.

History: Religion and law have been linked throughout history. The Code of Hammurabi (c. 1892 B.C.-1750 B.C), one of the earliest documented legal codes, was reportedly given to King Hammurabi by the Sumerian gods. The Ten Commandments, a centerpiece of the Jewish and Christian faiths, influenced similar guides for behavior in the Koran. They also have guided thinking on legal matters for centuries both in this country and in the European common law that was adopted by America at the founding of our nation. The notion of “eye for an eye” that guides some in the debate over capital punishment is a reflection of religious roots in the evolution of law (it is found in both Hammurabi’s code and the Old Testament and influenced Islamic Sharia law). The intentions of America’s Founding Fathers regarding how religion, law and public life are to be conducted remains up for debate among many groups.

Philosophical ideas: Some have said that law is the framework upon which religion rests – that law is the bones and religion is its soul. In truth, the two disciplines have much in common. They define right and wrong while also trying to find the interplay and balance between justice and mercy, between the need to provide discipline and order and the need to show love. These traditions can be studied in tandem, and the Center on Religion & the Professions offers a chance to connect legal scholars with those from other disciplines in ways to produce original research in this area.

Law in current affairs: The principles of law are seen in many current religious issues. For example, in the Catholic Church clergy abuse crisis, religious institutions and zoning laws, vouchers for religious schools, expressions of religion on public property, and rulings on peyote, a drug used in American Indian religious practice. Both Supreme Court and local rulings impact how religion and law are practiced in these areas.

Religion also plays a role in prisons and addiction recovery programs. Some studies have shown that inmates who participate in religious practice have a lower recidivism rate.

Law and journalism: The Center on Religion & the Professions is an affiliate of MU’s School of Journalism. Researchers could work jointly in religion, law and journalism to educate attorneys, students and the media about issues related to religion and law, with the goal of giving the public a more nuanced explanation of legal and religious issues. Journalists interested in law could also study how media coverage of these issues impacts public perception and how laws are made and followed.

Current issues: The Center aims to promote understanding of how a diverse public can better function with the many religions that are practiced in the U.S. The legal arena is often the one chosen by those in a minority viewpoint to protect rights or increase awareness. Legal scholars can work with the Center to promote these goals. Those practicing law can also better understand how their own religious or non-religious beliefs drive their interest in or practice of law.

Researchers could explore the ramifications of a legal system that has evolved from religious principles through the eyes of a diverse citizenry. In historical terms, the evolution of law in the U.S. could be traced in concert with the growth of religious diversity in the United States. Research that examines other ethical traditions could be useful in constructing law for a more diverse society.

Journal of Law & Religion
Religion & the Public Order
University of Maryland Law Journal of Race, Religion, Gender and Class
Religion, State & Society
Journal of Religious Ethics

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Religion and Constitutional Law
Eric Michael Mazur
Bucknell University

Religion and Education (Thorough Law)
Eric Michael Mazur
Bucknell University

Law and Religion in the United States
Francis J. Beckwith
Baylor University

Law and Religion in the Contemporary United States
Bill Long

Jewish Law and American Legal Theory
Professor Suzanne Last Stone and Rabbi Ozer Glickman
Yeshiva University

Association of Muslim Lawyers
Canadian Muslim Lawyers Association
Christian Academics
Christian Law Association
Christian Legal Society
International Association of Jewish Lawyers and Jurists
Lawyers’ Christian Fellowship UK
Muslim Women Lawyers for Human Rights
National Association of Muslim Lawyers
Religion in the Workplace Law
ReligionLink Religion in the workplace legislation
Religious Accommodation in the Workplace (Anti-Defamation League)

• Also see listing for Business
• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Library Science • Information Technology

Impact of religion: Some would argue that religion created the information revolution. The desire to have and to understand the record of religious thought and theology helped create what is now a mass market for information. Early Christian records moved from verbal memorization to papyrus scroll to parchment codex or book, which was portable and easily referenced. Moveable type meant books such as Bibles were no longer prohibitively expensive, didn’t take a long time to produce and were available in vernacular translations outside Latin. This 16th-century revolution could be compared to today’s Internet, allowing easy access to a multitude of information with no “gatekeeper.”

Historically, religion has been one of the first elements of society to embrace technological advances, from the printing press to radio to the Internet. Though some religions have been criticized at various points in their history for controlling and censoring information, historically religiously affiliated institutions such as Christian monasteries and Islamic libraries have preserved important religious, philosophical and scientific texts across the ages. This archiving not only preserved information but encouraged the ideology of placing value on information.

Modern information technology and library science – with its focus on improving learning, information organization and retrieval, human invention and innovation, and dissemination of new technologies and processes – could look to religion as a model of how information and technology have been used over the centuries and today.

Religion and technology: Religions aim to meet human spiritual, social and community needs. As technology has changed – changing both how people communicate the how communities are structured – religions have adapted to and used these new ways to communicate thoughts and ideas. Information and communities available on the Internet have taken religion to a place begun with the Protestant Reformation and printing of vernacular Bibles – it allows people to develop spirituality outside of the traditional power structures such as churches or religious leaders. Advances in technology have also been useful in preserving and disseminating religious texts. Today, people can read the entire Bible, Koran and other texts on-line, and many sites are searchable by chapter, phrase or keyword.

Houses of worship, denominations and faiths have Web sites where you can find everything from what time services are, to the address, to basic beliefs and pro- and con- arguments about the faith. Virtual seminaries are changing religious education, and digitized resources are available for schools and churches. Hundreds – possibly thousands – of texts, from journals to literature and primary sources – are available digitized and for free over the Internet. The Virtual Vatican site allows researchers to access the Vatican library and virtually examine objects such as 15th-century manuscripts. The Holy Land Satellite Atlas with a CD-ROM contains satellite maps of the Middle East and software permitting students to “fly” over the terrain of biblical sites.

Issues today: Advances in technology bring with them new ethical debates. One could examine whether on-line religious communities provide the same connection as “real” ones, and whether the Internet functions to bind a real-world community together or disconnect members from each other. The Internet has made pornography, infidelity, child crimes and identity crimes more accessible, which poses new challenges for a community as a whole and ethical dilemmas for some in the religious community who believe the Internet can be used for good, but has great propensity for evil.

While some would deem exposure to other belief systems found through the Internet an enhancement to their spirituality, some religious leaders are concerned exposure to other religions or criticism about their religion could weaken believers’ adherence or cause spiritual ruin. Still, the field of religion and technology poses many opportunities for those in the information technology or library profession. Cataloguing and making available the thousands of religious documents that exist can inform us about the past and our views of religion today. With the expanding global marketplace, they could make digital texts accessible in previously unavailable languages and allow access to documents previously unseen in nations around the world. Having these resources available opens the global public to information that previously may have been unavailable, in some countries even suppressed, possibly for religious reasons.

There is increased interest in religion, with discovery of texts such as the Gospel of Judas, and Dan Brown’s novel “The Da Vinci Code.” Having access to information digitally and easily can put “primary documents” into people’s hands as they explore questions about faith. Maintaining the religious record in new ways also makes them accessible for younger generations who grew up with this technology and will naturally utilize it in years to come.

(to come)

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Association of Christian Librarians
Association of Jewish Libraries
Catholic Library Association
Church and Synagogue Library Association
Fellowship of Christian Librarians and Information Specialists

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Mathematics

Understanding the world: In their own ways, mathematics and religion are both used to solve real-world problems. While they may come at problem-solving from different points of view, they share that they study abstract concepts and are based on the idea that objects are unchanging and that truths are certain and universal. Some religious beliefs have adopted mathematical ideas for religious or metaphysical purposes. Others have considered specific numbers and shapes to have mystical powers and divine meaning. Some people would argue that math itself is a religion, because of mathematicians’ belief that nature is simple, comprehensible and to be understood.

Founding principles: Pythagoras (582-507 B.C.), known as “the father of numbers,” also contributed to philosophy and religious teaching. While best known for the Pythagorean theorem (a squared + b squared = c squared), he also founded the mathematical, mystic, religious and scientific society called the Pythagoreans. Pythagoras and his students believed that through mathematics, everything could be predicted and measured in rhythmic patterns or cycles. They found beauty in numbers, which informed a worldview that included music, mathematics and an order and meaning to the world based on numbers and shapes.

Religious interests also motivated innovators such as Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Newton, who developed advances in mathematics to understand the structure of the Cosmos and God’s plan. Devout Christians, they saw their scientific work in religious terms and also incorporated math into their religious understanding. This worldview attributed divine character to mathematics because it is part of the structure God has used to create the world. Mathematics with religious overtones is also seen in Chinese number mysticism and the fields of theological geometry and the philosophy of mathematics.

Another example is the storied “golden ratio” in mathematics, praised by Pythagoras and considered by some to be the “divine proportion.” The golden ratio expresses the relationship that the sum of two quantities is to the larger quantity as the larger is to the smaller. The golden ratio appears in art, music, philosophy, psychology and architecture. It is sometimes used to portray an ideal proportion as dictated by or found pleasing to the Divine; some believe it is also innately pleasing and psychologically satisfying to the human mind and eye. Studies of the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt and the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, show these buildings may be built according to the “golden ratio.”

Religion and invention: Religious thinkers have contributed to mathematics for centuries, impacting the math we use today. It is believed that the Indian mathematician Baudhayana discovered the Pythagorean theorem around 800 B.C., about 300 years before the Pythagoreans. Hindu texts about the geometry of altar construction, dating to 800 B.C. to 200 B.C. or earlier, contain large amounts of geometrical knowledge, developed for religious purposes. The method of expressing all possible numbers using a set of 10 symbols emerged in India, around the middle of the third century B.C. Known as Brahmi numerals, some based on Sanskrit letters, they developed into the numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 used today.

Systems such as algebra, Arabic numerals, the decimal system and concept of zero were transmitted to Medieval Europe from the Muslim world. As Islam spread in the 7th century, blending of old and new and Eastern and Western ideas led to advances in physics, astronomy, medicine and mathematics. Arabic numerals – known as “Indian numerals” in Arabic because they originated in India – made mathematical tasks easier. The works of Al-Khwarizmi (Alghorismus), from whom the mathematical term “algorism” was derived, were translated into Latin and other European languages. Alghorismus created astronomical tables, laid the groundwork for algebra and found methods to address complex mathematical problems such as square roots and complex fractions. His experiments measured the height of the earth’s atmosphere and discovered the principle of the magnifying lens. Trigonometric work by Alkirmani of Toledo was translated into Latin (from which we get sine and cosine functions).

Issues today: Some scientists are using scientific data and principles, such as laws of probability, to attempt to prove or disprove the existence of God. Each side of the long-standing debate uses the universal language of mathematical probabilities to argue its point. In “The Probability of God: A Simple Calculation That Proves the Ultimate Truth” (2004), Stephen Unwin uses the Bayesian analysis – a math equation developed more than 200 years ago by European philosopher Thomas Bayes – to calculate the probability that God exists, concluding there is 67 percent “probability” that God does exist.

Those who use Bayes’ theorem in this way assign numerical values to the likelihood of religious experiences and beliefs, considering various factors. University of Oxford professor Richard Dawkins makes a case against this use of the theorem in his book, “The God Delusion” (2006), arguing that the equation is sound but the numbers used are based on “subjectively judged” experiences “turned into numbers for the sake of the exercise” (page 106).

Mathematicians have explored and debated spiritual aspects of mathematics for centuries, and continue to do so. Other recent books that explore the topic include “Mathematics in a Postmodern Age: A Christian Perspective” (2001) and “The Divine Challenge, Mathematics and the Divine” (2004). Mathematicians and others continue to see a divine hand in the complex and simple truths of mathematics; as well as evidence of a world that functions solely by its own, non-divine, laws.

Researchers could study whether religious faith impacts interest in mathematics or theories of mathematics; or how people believe using math to prove or disprove God impacts their religious beliefs or worldview. Researchers could examine whether belief or disbelief in divine origins affects the work ethics or other lifestyle beliefs and behaviors of mathematicians or others working with math. They could also look at whether different faiths, or lack thereof, have an impact on beliefs about mathematics and how it is utilized around the world.

Science and Christian Belief
Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Affiliation of Christian Engineers
American Society of Engineers of Indian Origin
Association of Christian Engineers and Scientists: (503) 228-0779
Association of Christians in Mathematical Sciences
Association of Muslim Scientists & Engineers
Christian Academics
International Muslim Association of Scientists & Engineers
Muslim Finance Professionals Association

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Military Science • Naval Science

History and background: The study of military campaigns throughout history often can be linked to factors involving religion. Some conflicts are directly related to religious belief; other conflicts are influenced by religion in how alliances are made and countries are mobilized for periods of war over the notion of belief. Many conflicts have roots in religious and cultural disagreement, sometimes going back centuries. In today’s society, the war on terror has been compared to a war against Muslim extremist philosophies. It is almost impossible to understand the situations in Iraq and Afghanistan as well as the events of the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks, when religion is removed from the conversation. Understanding the nature of conflict from a religious perspective gives vital help in both defense and working to avoid violent conflict by anticipating areas of conflict before they occur.

Strategic communication: The U.S. and its war on terrorism have been portrayed by some as a war on Muslims by a Christian nation. In some cases the U.S. military has been successful in changing minds on that theme, but the belief persists in other parts of the world. The Center’s unique position within the School of Journalism can link those interested in military research with those in the field of strategic communication in an effort to study ways in which the military can change its message or frame it into one that has a broad effectiveness. In particular, conflict theory might be useful because it has been studied as a public relations tool for helping organizations get their message out more effectively and navigate the pitfalls that come with an uneven public response to their message.

Military life: Current events have focused on the religious practice of military officers while in uniform. Others have examined how a soldier can practice a faith in a time of war and what they can do when they are facing direct orders that violate their own religious beliefs. For some there might not be much conflict between military and religious practice, but it is useful to attempt to identify and understand those instances when a military member might field conflict between those two worlds. Work done through the Center on Religion & the Professions in ethics and religion might foster research that examines how a person could attempt to solve these issues, and ways in which the military can help anticipate those conflicts more readily and deal with them effectively.

Workplace diversity: As the military becomes more diverse in terms of gender, ethnic and religious makeup, these issues will come to the forefront more often than they have in the past. The Center focuses on workplace diversity in terms of religious practice, attempting to help workers understand how to work through differences in the workplace that are affected by religion, even if on the surface the issue does not appear to be a religious one. It also could help in terms of teaching about religious tolerance, whether that could come in terms of harassment of those who practice other religions within the military; those one encounters while serving in another country; serving as or working with chaplains from a different faith tradition; or the fact that some in the military might choose a non-Christian or non-religious symbol on items such as headstones in national cemeteries.

(to come)

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Association of Muslim Social Scientists of North America
Association of Professional Chaplains
Christian Nuclear Fellowship
Conference on Faith & History
International Association of Christian Chaplains
National Association of Catholic Chaplains
National Association of Jewish Chaplains
North American Christian Foreign Language Association

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Music • Music History • Music Performance • Music Theory

Religion and music: Religion has a long-held role in the history of music. Many major musical works have been composed for religious occasions or with religious themes. Music is often used to convey the glory of God. It is part of many types of religious celebrations and observances, and music and songs are used to pass on religious stories, teaching and values.

At the same time, music of all sorts – from classical to contemporary pop – can be used to explore feelings about religion. Musicians may intend to pose questions or provoke thought about religious beliefs and practices through music. This may incite more conservative believers of religious traditions to protest, particularly when religious values are challenged or confronted in an unorthodox way. Religion continues to impact the music industry in many ways.

Music and morals: Music is often judged by religious standards. As such, it can both define and defy status quo beliefs of its time.

Baroque composer Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) is known for his hundreds of compositions, many of them deeply religious in origin. A devout Lutheran, Bach felt compelled to express reverence and celebration of God’s glory in his works – influencing the beliefs and styles of many later composers and musicians.

By contrast, some notes in music have been considered evil by religious standards. In the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church banned a musical interval of the augmented fourth spanning three tones, called a tritone, considering it the “Devil’s Chord” or “Devil’s Interval.” Experts say before it was outlawed, the dissonant tritone was used to portray the devil or evil. But the ban impacted both secular and religious music of the time. By the Romantic era, composers stopped avoiding the tritone, which appeared in music from then to the modern day, including classical, blues, jazz, musical theater and rock.

“Blue notes,” a slight drop of pitch on the third, fifth or seventh tone of the scale, common in blues and jazz music, were also considered by some to be “devil’s notes.” The term “devil music” has been applied to music ranging from 1950s rock and roll to contemporary heavy metal.

Music as a cultural force continues to be debated in recent decades. In the political arena, it has been argued that music that promotes “bad” values should be censored or banned. Some in the religious community continue to believe that particular beats and rhythms are inherently evil, and some believe evil and sin can be avoided by conscious avoidance of particular music. These issues are important for the artist/musician because they deal with freedom of expression, a key tenet in artistic exploration, and because social and political climates historically have impacted how musicians operate.

Religion and notation: Music notation as we know it in Western traditions is descended from Medieval Christian Gregorian chant, or plainsong, an early form of liturgical music. Greeks and Romans had named notes after letters, but as liturgical chants became more complex, church musicians invented symbols – or neumes – to indicate changes in pitch and duration within each syllable. A long horizontal line to indicate fixed pitch was introduced by the 10th century, followed by a four-line staff in the 13th century and fifth line in the 16th century, making what we recognize as the musical stave. The bass clef, flat, natural and sharp symbols we use today derive from Gregorian notation.

This notation allowed for more complex compositions and introduction of polyphonic hymns, as well as a system of recording parts for instrumentation. These innovations led to major developments in religious and secular vocal and instrumental music. According to some reports, the naming of “do re me fa so lat ti do” notes also came from an eighth-century Latin hymn to John the Baptist, in which the sounds were named for the first syllables of each of the song’s lines.

Other Western musical notation forms related to religious practice include that used by Shakers, a Protestant religious denomination that believed in the importance of recording spiritual revelations in the form of musical inspiration. They used alphabet letters and notation of rhythmic values similar to ancient Greek notation. Also of note is the “shape-note” system popular in the American south, which uses various-shaped notes to show the position notes on a scale. Found in church hymnals, sheet music and song books, shape notes are also often used in Amish and Mennonite traditions.

Music and philosophy: Music has the capacity to reflect society and to influence society. Its development is often related to similar movements in literature, art, philosophy and religion. Examples include the classical and romantic movements of music and corresponding themes of religious thought.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart typified the classical movement (roughly 1750-1820), with his invention of the sonata form. Classical music was defined by order, balance and elegance, also reflected in philosophical and religious ideals of the time. It corresponded with the Age of Enlightenment, a period based on belief in rationality and order. Deism – the belief that religious beliefs should be founded on human reason and observed features of the natural world, rather than divine revelation – was popular, as was the idea of God as the master mathematician.

The Romantic period of music (roughly 1820-1901), gave up symmetry and reason in favor of release of emotion and individualization of expression. It relied on virtuosic performances and personal interpretation without orderly themes and variations. The time period corresponded to the Second Great Awakening in the United States, an evangelical Christian period defined by revivalism. The movement focused a message of salvation on the individual rather than the congregation, emphasizing personal experiences of conversion that were animating and emotionally jarring. Leading evangelist Charles Finney – known for throwing his whole body into eloquent and hypnotic preaching – urged people away from scriptural structure to personal revelation.

Religion and music today: Religions continue to use music to foster values taught in religious communities, both to minister to believers and to share values and beliefs with the larger world. A recent development is the popularity of music that combines contemporary secular formats with messages that make it acceptable to those within religious communities. Christian rock and pop music, for example, attempts to imitate popular forms while focusing on lyrics that reflect shared Christian values. A booming industry, Christian music has also produced “crossover” artists popular in the secular genre, which has both been seen as “selling out” faith and sharing a message of faith with others.

Today’s music blends sounds and traditions from many cultures representing many religious beliefs. Examples range from samples of traditional Arabic and Asian music spliced into American pop songs; to Muslim hip-hop group Native Deen, whose music calls to remembrance of Allah; and Hasidic Jewish rap/reggae performer Matisyahu, who sings about Jewish prophecy, the Torah and devotion to God.

Current issues: Researchers interested in music history could partner with the Center on Religion & the Professions to explore what music trends in past and current times explain about the status of societies. Researchers can work with the Center to help create tools and curriculum that improve religious literacy among musicians as well as musical literacy among the religious.

Work could also focus on debates over whether certain words or expressions ought to be censored in popular forms of music, a debate which likely will be ongoing and influential in today’s culture. Researchers could look at whether today’s religious music is viewed as “serious” artistic endeavor, and whether there are quality educational programs available for those wanting to go into industries that focus on religious music.

Our increasingly diverse and global society means exposure to a variety of musical traditions, which can be a gateway to learning more about other cultures. Study of music and religion can help us better understand our traditions and those of others. It can also explore the impact of religious traditions on development of music, as well as music as a force in impacting perspectives about religion. Researchers may also be interested in exploring music’s ability to aurally communicate spiritual experience.

Journal of Ritual Studies
Religion & the Arts

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Christian Hymnody
Kenneth Hull
University of Waterloo

Music in the History of Christianity: Johann Sebastian Bach
E. Ann Matter
University of Pennsylvania

American Indian Music
Victoria Levine
Colorado College

Music, Religion and Ritual in Africa
Dr. Daniel Avorgbedor
Ohio State University

Association of Muslim Social Scientists of North America
Christian Academics
Christian Fellowship of Art Music Composers
Christian Performing Artists’ Fellowship
Faith Centered Music Association

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Fisheries And Wildlife • Forestry • Natural Resources • Parks Recreation And Tourism • Soil • Environmental And Atmospheric Sciences

Nature and religion: People’s beliefs about nature, and the relationship between people and nature, often have religious overtones. Naturalist and conservationist John Muir grew up in a strict Calvinist home but later found holiness in nature, saying at one point that he wanted to “devote the rest of my life to the study of the inventions of God.” Botanist George Washington Carver said that, “Reading about nature is fine, but if a person walks in the woods and listens carefully, he can learn more than what is in books, for they speak with the voice of God.”

Many religious traditions speak of sensing the presence of the divine in nature. Even some who don’t affiliate with an organized religion consider the great outdoors to be their private worship space.

Religious beliefs: Many faiths teach respect for the creatures that share Earth with humans. A long debate in Christianity has been over interpretation of Genesis 1:28, in which God blessed the man and woman he created (Adam and Eve) and told them: “Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.”

Scholars and believers have tried to discern whether “dominion” means using animals for humans’ purposes, or that humans bear responsibility for a benevolent stewardship of the natural world. As awareness of environmental issues has increased, the stewardship perspective has grown popular.

The most famous Christian saint associated with nature is St. Francis of Assisi, who renounced wealth to live a life of poverty amid the natural world. He praised the earth, sun, plants and animals and was known for preaching to birds and picking worms off the road and carrying them to safety. Founder of the Franciscan Order, St. Francis is known as the patron saint of animals and the environment.

In Islam, a saying of Muhammad, the faith’s founder, tells of the prophet being asked whether those who are kind to animals are rewarded. Muhammad reportedly answered: “There is a reward for kindness to every living animal or human.” If they must kill an animal, Muslims are commanded to do so in a manner that causes the least amount of fright and suffering.

Neo-paganism, a growing faith movement in the United States that includes Wicca and some Shamanistic faiths, is characterized by an Earth-based orientation. Neo-pagan rituals and practices often take place outdoors, close to the nature they hold sacred. Holidays often revolve around the changing seasons.

Animistic religions often believe that there is a spirit in every tree, mountain or spring, and all have to be respected.

Global warming: Evangelical Christians made news in 2006 by expressing concern about climate change. The Evangelical Climate Initiative – including mega-church pastors, Christian college presidents and other leaders – issued a manifesto called “Climate Change: An Evangelical Call to Action.” Liberal and moderate faith groups have long embraced environmental concerns, but many conservative Christians considered the scientific evidence inconclusive and environmental concerns unrelated to religious obligation.

The high-profile campaign revealed disagreement among evangelicals. Some support “creation care,” a term for environmental awareness and action. They see saving the earth as a pro-life issue because it affects the well-being and, potentially, survival of future generations. Opponents believe God ordered humans to dominate all living things, or that global warming is part of the prophesied End Times.

According to a 2006 survey, three-quarters of evangelicals – a powerful social and political group – favor actions such as slowing climate change or preventing development of wild areas. A quarter are strong supporters of environmental action, and more than half found support for environmentalism in their Christian beliefs. Two-thirds believe climate change is happening and 70 percent see it as a significant danger. More than 60 percent support taking steps to stop it, and half favor doing so even if the cost is high.

Issues today: The environmental movement is drawing an increasing number of religious people from a variety of faith traditions, which suggests that care of the Earth could unite people across religious divides. Some religious believers are interested in climate change for its effect on social justice issues as well. For example, if warming of the environment contributes to more severe hurricane seasons, people may protest for religious reasons because damage from hurricanes often disproportionately affects the poor.

Researchers can study people’s ideas about the origin of nature, such as whether it is wrought by the hand of God, or an independent, naturally occurring phenomenon. Some people consider nature to be a holy miracle. Wildlife is seen as a sanctuary and a sacred space, whose contents and creatures are also sacred creations. Others use religion as a way to define humans’ role in respect to nature. Study of the natural world has led to both theories of divine origin and scientific invention, including the theory of evolution. The natural world has long held a spiritual pull on people, as well, with spiritual meaning, purification and discernment applied to retreats into the wilderness for faiths including Judaism, Christianity and Buddhism.

Those working in conservation can work with religious groups to accomplish aims. They may not always come from the same perspective, but they may share the same goals. Conservationists can use the resources of religious organizations to share information about environmental issues (already seen with documentaries such as Al Gore’s “An Inconvenient Truth” being shown at churches around the country). Religious groups can inform environmentalists and others about why the natural world is important to them. This many even impact how natural wonders are marketed to tourists and nature lovers from around the world. Researchers can study and develop ways people of faith and environmentalists, scientists, conservationists and naturalists can work together.

Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science
Ecotheology: Journal of Religion, Nature & the Environment
Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature & Culture

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Religion and Animals
Paul Waldau
Tufts University

Religion, Nature and Environmentalism in America
Sarah Pike
California State University, Chico

Affiliation of Christian Geologists
Christian Academics
Christian Foresters Fellowship: (970) 491-6333
Evangelical Environmental Network
Fellowship of Christian Farmers International

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Philosophy

A shared history: Philosophy and religion have a long history of inspiring, influencing and challenging each other. In the process, they have impacted how humans view their roles, drives and ideals in the world in which we live. Classical philosophers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle influenced early Christian thinkers. Early philosophers and religious thinkers both competed with and borrowed from each other to further explain and understand their beliefs. Early Christians intertwined their beliefs with classical learning, science and philosophy, including ideas such as Plato and Plotinus’ notions that God could be found through contemplation of beauty, or Gregory’s doctrine that God is incorporeal, a doctrine from Platonic philosophy. Gregory’s account of the Trinity revolves around Aristotle’s idea that things could be divided into categories and qualities.

Middle Eastern Christians translated the works of Plato, Aristotle and others into Middle Eastern languages such as Syriac and Arabic, preserving their ideas and influencing later Muslim philosophers. More modern philosophers have also tackled the role of faith in human experience and societies; some supporting belief in a divine creator and others dismissing it. Both philosophers and religious thinkers continue to influence humans’ views of our place in the world, our current religious struggles, world geography and beliefs about what it means to be human and what constitutes a virtuous life.

A few major philosophers who have developed thoughts about religion include:

Socrates – Socrates (469-399 B.C.) was the first philosopher to focus on the problems of “God, the Good and the Beautiful.” He examined issues such as piety, morals, ethics and religious practice. Socrates believed in the existence of gods vastly superior to ourselves in wisdom and power. However, he was also a critic and reformer of the religious tradition of his time and new practices he encountered. Some experts argue that Socrates saw religious commitments as integral to his philosophical mission of moral examination, and that this reformed how religion was practiced in his time. Socrates’ contributions to the “rational reformation” of Greek religion informed the theology of his pupil, Plato.

Plato: A founding father of Western philosophy, Athenian philosopher Plato (427-347 B.C.) had a major impact on religious and philosophical thought. Plato felt gods should only be represented as pious and good because goodness was the nature of divinity. In “Philebus,” he meditated on pleasure and the good life, concluding that something’s goodness lay in the unity of beauty, symmetry and truth. In “Phaedo,” he argued for the immortality of the soul. Plato expressed how he believed the universe was created – in the creator’s likeness, out of pre-existing chaos (contrasting with the later Christian account that God created the universe out of a void) – but also warned that, being mortals, it was something none of us could ever understand.

Artistotle – Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was not particularly religious himself, but called theology “the most divine knowledge.” A student of Plato’s academy, Aristotle created the study of formal logic and influenced the course of Western intellectual history. He conceived of a God operating outside of the world, putting creation in motion and causing all motion in nature. He did not attribute mercy, love, sympathy or similar qualities to God. But he believed that God was drawing all things toward himself – that it was the instinctive desire of all things to be drawn to God in action, purpose and self-worth, and especially to the divine design God holds for their lives. He believed this God or Supreme Form was uncreated, eternal and unchangeable, and existed as “pure intellect” and “fully realized potential.” He also believed that the human intellect is connected with the divine intellect, which gives humans their powers of inspiration, insight and imagination.

Aquinas: Influenced by Aristotle, philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), has had a huge influence on Christian theology, especially of the Roman Catholic Church. Aquinas believed “that for the knowledge of any truth whatsoever man needs Divine help that the intellect may be moved by God to its act.” Aquinas defined the four (natural) cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, justice and fortitude. His three (supernatural) theological virtues were faith, hope and charity. Aquinas viewed theology, or the sacred doctrine, as a science whose data consists of written scripture and church tradition. He felt existence of God is neither self-evident nor beyond proof, and described God as simple, perfect, infinite, immutable, and one. Aquinas’ works influenced the literary practice of modernist writer James Joyce.

Immanuel Kant: German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) asserted that reason and philosophy are “in reality directed to those three problems only (God, Soul, Freedom),” meaning that no one can really know if there is a God and an afterlife. But no one can really know that there is not a God and an afterlife either. Kant believed that for the sake of society and morality, people can be justified in believing in them, even though they can never know for sure whether they are real. He believed that happiness is tied to morality, and for this reason, people should choose to believe in God, because the idea of God can’t be separated from happiness-morality as the “ideal of the supreme good.” Kant’s efforts to root religion in morality had a significant impact on Protestant theology in Europe, especially what is called “liberal theology,” which stressed the moral content of Christianity, particularly for social reform.

Søren Kierkegaard: Danish philosopher and theologian Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) is sometimes characterized as a Christian existentialist. Popular ideas included his “leap of faith,” of how an individual could transcend rationality in favor of something more uncanny such as faith. He also surmised that to have faith means also to have doubt, and that a faith without doubting God’s existence or goodness is not much of a faith. Later in life, he attacked Christianity and its allegiance with the state, believing that state-church union perverted the true meaning of Christianity. He believed that in such conditions, congregations are meaningless, Christianity becomes secularized and political, and the faith becomes empty.

Karl Marx: German social philosopher Karl Marx (1818-83) wrote, with Friedrich Engels, “The Communist Manifesto (1848), which appealed to science and reason as the basis for reform, rather than the rights of man. His “Das Kapital,” offered a critical analysis of capitalism. Marx’s ideas had a major influence on workers’ movements and Marxian ideas have impacted many parts of the world. Marx famously wrote in 1843: “Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sign of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.”

Friedrich Nietzsche: German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) produced critiques of religion, morality, philosophy and contemporary society. His “Thus Spoke Zarathustra,” (1883 – 1885), a philosophical work of fiction, imitated the style of the New Testament and the Platonic dialogues. Nietzsche offered interpretation of Western literary and philosophical traditions through the character of Zarathustra (a reference to the historic figure behind Zoroastrianism, an ancient religion born in what is now Iran). His “The Antichrist, Curse on Christianity” (1888), attacked the morals of Christianity. Though he gave some respect to Jesus and some Christian elements, Nietzsche proposed an “Anti-Christian” morality that included reframing the perspective of all values. In “The Gay Science,” he ranked one’s life as the sole consideration when evaluating how one should act. The book is best known for Nietzsche’s statement: “God is dead. God remains dead. And we have killed him.”

Issues today: The pursuit of philosophy can bring greater depth to discussion and understanding of current issues such as end-of-life debates, the death penalty, legal concepts, and the role of democracy and religion in society. Both philosophical and religious ideas are used to define human values and ethics – from the environment to poverty – and how we define our responsibilities in the world, human motivation and the human will. Those interested in philosophy can examine the beliefs, ideas, values, rituals and traditions that have shaped various cultures. They may also want to study the role of philosophy today, on an individual and global scale – what needs it fills, how one defines “philosopher” in the day of blogging and pundits, and how it can reflect the new technologies and ethical issues of the modern age.

International Journal for Philosophy of Religion
Journal of Religious Ethics
Journal of Ritual Studies
Journal of Society and Christian Ethics
Science and Christian Belief
Faith and Philosophy

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Philosophy of Religion
Brad Hadaway
Georgetown College

Philosophy of Religion
Paul Leclerc
Community College of Rhode Island

Philosophy of Religion
Chris Heathwood
University of Colorado

Philosophy of Religion
Dr. C. David Grant
Texas Christian University

Philosophy of Religion
Richard Taylor
University of South Florida

Eastern Philosophy and Religion
Eric S. Nelson
University of Massachusetts Lowell

Philosophy and the Study of Religion
Jeffrey Stout
Princeton

Association of Muslim Social Scientists of North America
Christian Academics
Evangelical Philosophical Society
Evangelical Theological Society
Mockler Center for Faith and Ethics in the Workplace
Society of Christian Philosophers

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.