Many of the hottest debates in science, religion and ethics revolve around food production, technology, the environment and treatment of animals. These include topics of genetically altered crops, ethics of food production and religious values about food. All have ties to religious beliefs.

Ethics of food production: Is there an ethical bind over the fact that the United States has a surplus of food, while other nations have shortages? Many religions endorse the value of giving to those who have nothing and support sending surplus food to other nations. Another movement, supported by high-profile U2 frontman and Christian Bono, believes giving food will disrupt local economies more than not giving food. The Catholic Church explores moral issues of the structure of America’s agricultural workforce, reaching out to migrant workers and supporting rights for the underrepresented. Groups such as PETA advocate for the ethical treatment of animals in science and agriculture. Another ethical dilemma producers face is whether to use pesticides or other chemicals that could be harmful to the environment or humans while also trying to improve product quality and quantity. Many religions share principles of respect for animal life and teach respect and care for the natural world.

Genetically altered food: Who gets to be “God,” creating and designing food? Is there an ethical dilemma involved with distributing food whose long-term effect is not yet known? Should we let nature take its course? How far is “too far” in altering what nature does “naturally”? Scientists, producers and consumers will have to ask themselves these questions. The answers may vary, depending on one’s beliefs.

Hindus see animals as human souls in animal form, so they don’t eat animals or cloned animals, though they are not against animal cloning in general. Genetically modified plants can’t be used in religious ceremonies, but those plants can be consumed generally, Hindu leaders say. Buddhists address animal biotechnology mostly in terms of scientists’ motivation, accepting the practice if motivation is to reduce suffering.

Jewish scholars deem cloning mostly acceptable, though creation of gene-altered animals could be a violation of Talmudic prohibitions against cross-species “grafting.” Muslim scholars are concerned cloning could usurp Allah’s unique right to create, but also generally accept cloning and other alterations on the rationale that the human talents behind such work are gifts from Allah. Christian leaders largely see cloning as an act of hubris and, therefore, sin.

Religious values and food: Among issues raised by new technologies are how followers of some religions will manage their strict dietary rules if meat in stores is made by a process deemed sinful or contains genes from an organism they are not supposed to eat. A growing niche market is food produced in alliance with ethnic and religious traditions, including special butchering and food guidelines, such as halal for Muslims and kosher for Jews. Faith groups such as Hindus, Sikhs and Seventh-day Adventists primarily eat a vegetarian diet. Researchers could study the growth in niche markets, how faith traditions of farmers or scientists impact their own work, or the health impacts of particular ethnic or religious diets.

Anthropologists study humans through biology, behavior, language and culture from comparative, evolutionary and historical perspectives. In understanding religion, anthropologists look at symbols, beliefs, patterns of behavior, rituals and moral codes of humans. Earlier Western anthropologists are now thought to have looked at non-Western or non-monotheistic religions through a “primitivist” lens. But today’s anthropologists often follow the example of American anthropologist Franz Boaz, who believed humans live in a pluralistic universe with many realities, in which there are no “better” societies, only different ones. This approach fits well with the vastly globalizing nature of human society and the growing religious of diversity of people in America and around the world.

Archaeologists study the material remains of past societies, which can serve as a source of information about religious traditions, ritual practices, symbolic systems and the sacred in pre-historic and historic contexts. Archaeology has contributed to important discoveries into how religious life was established and preserved in the archaeological record.

Religion is a popular field for anthropological and archaeological research. There is keen interest, for example, in biblical archaeology among those hoping to find or disprove support for a historical basis for biblical accounts. Questions one could ask when engaged in this topic of research may arise from the sources of funding, and the goals and politics of sponsors and whether there is a religious bias. Political and religious situations in some nations also impact access to important sites for research. Researchers in these fields should prepare for adulation from religious groups when support for that religion’s historical basis is found, and criticism or dismissal from similar groups if contradictory evidence is found. Findings bring up the issue of whether faiths are in any way reliant on the integration of texts and traditions with artifacts in preserving practice of the faith; as well the potential power of archaeological findings to challenge existing beliefs. There is also interest among religious communities in understanding how their traditions were practiced in earlier times, which gives them context for modern-day interpretation and worship. Researchers could also explore how their own beliefs inspire or inform their work.

Modern architects, civil and industrial engineers strive to respond to human and environmental conditions in designing homes, workspaces and commercial buildings. This includes considering quality of life for people, promoting the meaning and value of physical settings; designing waste disposal, infrastructure and transportation; and designing spaces that combine technology and people, keeping in mind both their physiological and psychological capabilities.

In a global marketplaces and diverse society, successful professionals consider the religious and personal needs of those who will use the structures they build. An understanding of religious beliefs regarding buildings and environment is instructive. A few examples include:

Shinto, or “the way of the kami,” is a prehistoric Japanese religious tradition that is still practiced today, sometimes in combination with other faith traditions. “Kami” refers to Japanese mythological deities, as well as divinity manifested in natural objects, places, animals and people.

Shinto beliefs stress harmony between deities, man, and nature, with the holiest structures traditionally near natural features such as waterfalls, caves, mountains or forests.

Hindu Ayurvedic principles focus on healing, prevention and rejuvenation through a system of balance achieved by living in accordance with nature’s laws. Earth’s magnetic fields, and influences of the planets and other heavenly bodies are necessary factors when designing commercial or residential buildings, temples and cities. It is believed that architectural structures are alive, influenced by natural law just as is human health. Living or working in a building in accordance with nature law ensures prosperity.

Designers might also consider specific religious beliefs, such as Muslims who prefer bathrooms to be designed so commodes face away from Mecca, the holiest city of Islam; or belief systems such as Feng Shui, an ancient Chinese practice of placement and arrangement of space – now a trend in American decorating – claimed to achieve harmony with the environment. Architects and engineers also can benefit in the growth industry of religious building construction as America’s religious communities continue to thrive.

Artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci later came to believe that ugliness communicated truth better than beauty. Their painstaking recreations of “regular” people – some depicted in anguish – conveyed a spiritual value in realism that spurred artists and others to learn more about the human body, leading to study of anatomy and medicine.

Orthodox Christians have long used colorful painted icons to depict a sense of religious understanding that could be passed on through generations. Icons became an essential part of the Church’s survival in spite of purges during Communist rule in Soviet Russia and Eastern Europe. Icons of Jesus, the Virgin Mary, the apostles and saints are central to the Orthodox faith. Orthodox believers do not worship the images, but contemplate the deeds and spiritual natures of those depicted. Orthodox Christians also believe icons – painted on wood or canvas – reflect a central Christian belief that in Christ, God became part of the physical world and sanctified it. They offer a way to teach about the faith visually, in a language that crosses racial or ethnic boundaries.

In Islam, it is forbidden to depict God and the prophets – including Muhammad, believed by Muslims to be the most recent in a line of prophets – as well as animals. This has forced a stylistic difference in the evolution of Islamic art, one that has stressed geometric shapes and colors rather than animated life.

The ban arose out of concern that images of Muhammad or other religious figures could lead to idolatry and detract from worship of Allah. (The Ten Commandments of the Jewish and Christian faiths contain similar prohibitions against “graven images.”) But there are also differences among Muslim practice. Experts say Shiite Islam has fewer issues with portraying Muhammad; more conservative strains of Sunni Islam in some cases prohibit portraying any form at all. Art or décor in mosques or Muslim homes is often simple words of the Koran written in calligraphy.

A 19th-century American art trend featured beautiful and serene natural landscapes intended to inspire awe and communicate the presence of God and his creative powers as manifested in the natural world.

Understanding the history of art in religion helps a person understand how art interacts with religion. Because it plays such a vital role in cultural development, it is worth studying the role it plays in contemporary society as well to see how it changes beliefs, attitudes and values. Religion has also had a large impact on art, from sculptures of ancient Greek gods and goddess to Renaissance masterworks – religion has provided both a subject and an inspiration to create.

Cultural Differences: What is good art? The critic concerned with aesthetics might define that differently than someone who judges art based on its moral value. News is regularly made about protests by those who believe that art violates sacred religious or ethical principles, and it stirs up passions on all sides of the issue. Religious literacy, as well as a sense of literacy in the area of art appreciation, could help bridge gaps of understanding and context.

Artists often seek a place where humanity and transcendence come together. They may struggle with their beliefs and explore their fears, the dogma or perceived contradictions through art, intending to pose questions or provoke thought. This may incite more conservative representatives of a religious tradition to protest, particularly when traditional religious values are challenged or confronted in an unorthodox way.

Examples include recent violent and deadly demonstrations that erupted over European newspaper cartoons depicting Muhammad as a terrorist. The depiction of Mohammed alone was offensive to many Muslims and showed how freedom of expression has the ability to offend large groups. Experts say reaction was mostly to how Muhammad was portrayed and existing tensions, as likenesses of Muhammad have long been displayed in the collections of some of the world’s greatest museums and libraries without exciting alarm or reaction.

Chris Ofili’s multi-media work, “The Holy Virgin Mary,” caused controversy in the United States by showing the Virgin as black, with a three-dimensional breast made from a ball of elephant dung. The piece outraged some Catholics, who saw it as a defacement of the Virgin. What many did not know was that Ofili himself was Catholic, and that he chose to draw upon his African roots to represent his idea of the Virgin Mary, using the elephant dung that symbolized fertility and the Earth in his culture.

Art’s role in religion: What was largely missing in these controversies was dialogue, a major focus of the Center’s work. Research partnerships with those who study conflict management, for example, might help artists who want to do their best work while still making sure that reaction doesn’t overshadow meaning.

Both art and religion have more in common than in disagreement, particularly a need to describe the world or parts of the world. Though they do it in different ways, both search for meaning and are themselves a vehicle for expressing what is found. Art is a way to experience answers to questions about life and existence, though not all religions value experience in the same way; some tend to put more emphasis on the mind and philosophical thought rather than expression.

Artists also have the ability to work within paradigms or explore new ones. While this might be of offense to some from more conservative traditions, art can be a way to show religious communities that new ideas and paradigms are not a threat to their belief system but rather an exercise in living.

Art also gives expression to spiritual experience and belief. It is a way to make those things that are believed but not seen take on reality, be seen, digested, understood and shared in a common visual language. Art and religion also tell people about themselves. One example is the many ways that Jesus is depicted in art. Images have changed over time, reflecting shifts in theologies, historical research and the ethnicity of worshippers. Religion scholars say Christians tend to project themselves – both in belief and likeness – onto their savior, so new portrayals of Jesus are likely to present current themes in the faith.

Issues today: One of the Center’s goals is to highlight how religion interacts with other disciplines so that we can understand this process and find ways to make it a better experience for society as a whole. Research in the areas of education and training can help further this aim. Researchers may want to look at the role that religion has played in art and art in religion, and how they both reflect and create the society in which we live.

They could study how pieces of art deemed religiously controversial in their day have become mainstream because faith interpretations have changed – or actually were responsible for changing views about faith through dialogue. Researchers could look at whether personal faith impacts an artist’s subjects, or how faith influences non-religious subjects. They could also study the movement that looks at creating (art) as a way to honor the “master Creator,” studying people’s beliefs about why they create and how it fits into their religious beliefs or world view.

Most current growth in Christianity, from evangelical Protestantism to Mormonism to Anglicanism, is in the southern hemisphere, particularly Africa. African churches tend to be theologically conservative and will have an impact on the future direction of these faiths. Some believe Christianity in Africa is a holdover from an imperialist era. Others see it as authentically African, combining Christian beliefs with the worldview and culture of traditional African religions. More than 10 percent of the population in parts of Africa practices indigenous religions, which impacts how Christianity and Islam are practiced, including conservative doctrine, openness to supernatural ideas and concern for “earthly” issues such as justice and poverty.

Historically, Christians have been on both sides of the apartheid movement in South Africa and the slavery issue in the Americas, using theology to support each argument. The concept of “black theology” grew out of the U.S. civil rights revolutions of the 1960s, rooted in a Christian tradition among American blacks that understood God as siding with the oppressed. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. insisted on Christianity’s need to address social injustice. After leaving the Nation of Islam, which advocated a separate black state, Malcolm X preached that the values of Islam could transcend racial boundaries. Desmond Tutu, an Anglican priest, argued in his “ubuntu theology” for inclusiveness and overcoming barriers that divided people.

Christianity was entrenched in North American black communities by the end of the 19th century, often mixed with African religious elements. The Christian message for blacks represented the hope of future happiness, with popular spiritual and secular songs including exhortations to moral behavior, imagery of heaven and anticipation of the coming of God’s Kingdom.

The Pentecostal movement, which began in California in early 20th century, focused on overcoming racial barriers and welcomed mixed congregations. Today, Pentecostalism is growing rapidly among blacks, and many of the nation’s largest black churches are Pentecostal.

African-Americans make up an estimated 20 percent of the roughly 3.5 million American Muslims, and an estimated 30 percent of those regularly attending mosques. Most follow W. Deen Mohammed or another orthodox teacher. Louis Farrakhan, head of the Nation of Islam, which does not follow mainstream Islam, leads an estimated 100,000 African-American Muslims.

Black churches have long emphasized social services. Now the growing number of predominantly African-American megachurches — those with average Sunday attendance of 2,000 or more — are aggressively expanding outreach and economic development efforts, affecting the nature of surrounding neighborhoods. Some have started community development corporations that develop housing, new businesses, health clinics and social programs. Churches are confronting black men’s issues, family issues and health issues in the black community.

African-American churches continue their history of activism and political involvement, redefining activism in the post-civil rights era. African-American churches are known as incubators of political and community leadership, musical talent in many genres and repositories of black history. Researchers could look at how religious involvement affects the lives of black membership and black communities, whether religious involvement promotes racial integration or solidifies racial identification, or attitudes in black religious communities toward working with faith-based government programs which share common goals but potentially different ideologies.

Supporters of stem-cell research argue that the potential health benefits to existing humans outweighs concerns over destruction of embryos and that manipulating cells in a laboratory is different from cloning humans. Opponents argue that the work disrespects potential human life, and that even procedures that may not destroy embryos pose serious ethical issues.

Religious opinions

A 2005 poll by the Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life and the Pew Research Center for the People & the Press found that by a nearly 2-1 ratio (57 percent to 30 percent) Americans said it was more important to conduct stem-cell research to find new cures than to not destroy the potential life of embryos involved in the research. Polls show more Americans support embryonic stem cell research now than a year ago. Roughly half (52 percent) of opponents say their religious beliefs are the biggest influence on their thinking.

The Catholic Church has led opposition to human embryonic stem-cell research because of what it calls the “sanctity of life.” Catholic doctrine holds that life begins at conception, so an embryo, even in its earliest stage of development, is regarded as a human life. Destroying an embryo, even for curing disease, is regarded as immoral. The National Catholic Bioethics Center advocates finding ways to harvest stem cells without the use of embryos. The Southern Baptist Convention’s Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission opposes embryonic stem cell research, as does the evangelical Christian Focus on the Family.

A task force reporting to the Episcopal Church’s 2003 General Convention concluded that “it is in keeping with our call to heal the afflicted” to make use of embryos already held in fertility clinics, but took a “conservative and balanced approach” in stressing that it does not recommend embryos be created for stem-cell research.

Mainstream Jewish doctrine holds that life begins at a later stage of development (than embryonic). It does not grant legal status to an embryo. Traditionally, the Jewish faith holds that life begins at quickening, or the first time a mother feels the movement of a fetus. The Jewish Orthodox Union supports therapeutic cloning from a Jewish theological perspective, arguing that an embryo outside the womb is not a viable life form. Hadassah, the Women’s Zionist Organization of America, is lobbying state legislatures for medical research on embryonic stem cells. The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism supports embryonic stem cell research within ethical guidelines, citing the Jewish values of “preserving life and promoting health.”

Muslim leaders support embryonic stem cell research within certain limits, especially if the research has potential to cure diseases. Muslim experts say that an embryo not in its natural environment, the womb, is not human. If not placed in the womb it would not survive and become a human being. However, it is important to establish strict rules against the misuse of embryos.

Some opinions on stem-cell research are based on a notion of human dignity — ascribed scripturally through humans being “fearfully and wonderfully made” by God (Psalm 139:13-14) and created by God “in his own image” (Gen. 1:27) – that being human sets people apart from animals and makes their lives sacred because they were created by God. Others argue that, because disease not only affects the body but can rob a person of dignity, stem-cell research has potential to respect human life by restoring dignity to the suffering.

Legislation

On July 19, 2006, President Bush vetoed a bill that would have relaxed restrictions on federal funding of stem cell research. Most states are pursuing their own embryonic stem cell agendas. Some are pushing research, others are restricting research. An amendment to the Missouri state constitution passed in November 2006 allows stem cell research, therapies and cures allowed under federal law to continue to be allowed in Missouri. It also establishes ethical boundaries and oversight guidelines for stem cell research conducted in the state, including a ban on any attempt to clone a human being. Advancement of techniques in this research could resolve conflicts, alter the discussion or open the way to federal funding of research on new embryonic stem cell lines, currently banned by federal law

Both biology and religion seek to understand and define the origin and definition of human life, which informs opinions on issues such as stem-cell research and abortion. Many religious and social conservatives believe human personhood is attained at conception, or shortly thereafter when cellular division occurs. Many religious liberals, social liberals and secularists believe personhood happens later, during the embryonic or fetal stage of pregnancy, or even at birth when the fetus becomes independent of its mother. Scientifically, human life could begin when the human egg and sperm nuclei fuse at fertilization. Or when the embryo becomes an individual, 14 days after fertilization, when each embryo can produce only one individual and after cells have developed into specific types. But there is no consensus about when human life becomes a person with fundamental human rights, including the right to life itself.

Other topics that question the origin and value of life include the study of evolution, first presented by Charles Darwin in his 1859 Origin of the Species, describing a scientific explanation for the origin of the array of species on the planet. The theories of evolution and natural selection, deemed blasphemous as the time, contradicted the story of the world’s origin and order described in the biblical account, Genesis. Evolution is the theory is that all living things share a common ancestor, and that the complex life forms we know today evolved from single-celled organisms over millions of years. Today, some religious believers promote the idea of intelligent design, that some aspects of life forms are so complex that they must reflect the design of a conscious, rational intelligence. There is also “theistic evolution,” the belief that God guided evolution, causing both the first life forms to appear as well as the eventual development of higher forms of life. Creationists believe in the literal truth of the Bible’s account of creation in Gen. 1:1-2:4a, where God creates the Earth and all its life forms in six consecutive 24-hour days less than 10,000 years ago. Some believers also take biblical descriptions of humans being “fearfully and wonderfully made” and created by God “in his own image” to dispute theories that humans and animals could share a common ancestor. Scientists, religious believers, educators and others continue to debate the value of teaching scientific and religious beliefs about the origin of life, and how it will be taught to future generations.

The appropriateness of using animals for scientific and medical research is also rooted in belief systems often determined by religion. Using animals in medical research is required by law for pharmaceuticals and many say it is crucial to finding treatments and cures. Researchers also say they have a moral and ethical obligation to consumers to provide safe products, and that sometimes the only way to do that is to test them on animals. A key facet of many religions is living in harmony with other natural life and showing care and respect for animal life.

Those who practice in the field of life sciences face moral and ethical issues in scientific research and medical treatment, as many discoveries in this field require political, public, social and personal responsibility. Practical applications that involve religion include: teaching of biology, evolution, intelligent design in public/private schools; developing curriculum and textbooks; the personal beliefs of scientists and religious believers, and how their interest or belief in a faith informs or inspires their work; whether religious beliefs do or should inform government regulations, and whether such laws are necessary. Knowledge of religion can help researchers understand the beliefs of those who support and oppose research from a religious perspective, possibly inform their own ethical beliefs, aid in creation and challenging of laws and identify sources of funding for public or private research.