DISCIPLINES: • Communication-Personal And Professional • Communication Science • Language Pathology • Linguistics • Speech communication

Understanding the message: Those who study communication are interested in creating and critically evaluating messages. These messages persuade, inform and entertain in one-to-one interactions, organizational communication and the mass media. Modern communicative media shape, and are shaped by, moral visions and narratives that come from religious traditions. Religious perspectives have an impact on modern discourse and religious organizations operate their own media. In personal and intercultural communication, understanding religious beliefs and cues is an important part of successful personal, business and intercultural communication.

Mass communications: Critically listening, reading, thinking and writing about mass media is enhanced by knowledge of religious symbolism and themes. For example, recent films such as “Constantine,” “The Passion of the Christ,” the “Lord of the Rings” trilogy and “Chronicles of Narnia” present overtly religious symbols. More subtle religious messages are found in movies such as “Million Dollar Baby” and “The Sea Inside” because they grapple with the moral dilemma of assisted suicide. (The U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops’ film office gave both movies an “O” rating – for morally offensive – because they offer sympathetic views of euthanasia). Recent films with implicit religious themes include: “Their Eyes Were Watching God” (spiritual awakening), “The Motorcycle Diaries” (spiritual journey), “Sideways” (search for identity), “Shrek 2” (hero myth), “Lost in Translation” (rite of passage) and “I Heart Huckabees” (existential angst).

Such films may indicate a focus on new religious “enemies,” greater interest in the spirit world and more willingness to accept ambiguity. One could study how films express religious experience and how religious narratives affect the symbolism and arc of modern entertainment. Other issues in mass communication include broadcast regulation, which is influenced by lobbying groups that represent a conservative religious influence. Mass media also pose ethical issues, such as whether to censor nudity or broadcast killing, which may be impacted by religious beliefs about morality and respect for human life. Mass communication is absorbed by a diverse group of people. Understanding the beliefs and needs of people is the key to communicating the message you want to send.

Interpersonal and intercultural: Communication in work and social contexts, family, and conflict management is more effective with understanding of others’ religious traditions and beliefs. Understanding religious and cultural norms – language, social expectations, nonverbal communication, dress and appearance, dining customs, and oral and written communication – can mean the difference between unsuccessful and successful communication. Examples may include knowing that it is proper to eat only with the right hand in the Middle East; or that an Orthodox Jewish man will not shake hands with a woman. This is particularly important as American society grows more diverse and the economy globalized. We have much more contact in all settings with people who come from different cultures and backgrounds. Those who study intercultural communications can also examine the values, beliefs, customs and attitudes that affect intercultural communication.

How we communicate: One way to understand human experience is to look at the communication that accompanies or embodies religious experience. The importance of symbolism to religion is evoked in the practices often associated with religion, such as parables, rituals, prayer, sermons, scriptures, stories, books and religious tracts. Christians were among the first to utilize radio in the 1920s, sending sermons and hymns to the masses. They later followed with television programs and stations and use of the Internet. All of these can be studied as communication artifacts.

Another example is the impact on the modern English language of the King James translation of the Bible, first printed in 1611. The translation – characterized by poetic style and colorful language – is the source for English-language expressions such as “can the leopard change his spots?”, “eye to eye,” “gird one’s loins,” “in the twinkling of an eye,” “fell flat on his face,” “a fly in the ointment,” “labor of love,” “put words in his mouth,” “land of the living,” and “the root of the matter,” among others. Its style is reflected in Abraham Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address” and Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech.

Issues today: There are opportunities to work in mass media writing and reporting about religion in secular and religious contexts. Religions are now recognizing the importance of having a brand and a message in capturing the interest of potential members. They are putting together campaigns, from Web sites and billboards to TV commercials and outreach to secular media for publicity. We live in a time where audience members are increasingly diverse and diffuse. The Internet and satellite TV means we can see the mediated messages of cultures from around the world – and they can see ours. These messages impact perceptions and actions. It is up to those who focus on communication to moderate that exchange, personally and on a mass scale, to critically assess and work toward the most effective communication.

Journal of Media & Religion
Religion & American Culture
Journal of Religion and Communication

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Religion and Communication
Drake University

Association of Muslim Social Scientists of North America
Catholic Writers Online
Christian Academics
Christian Writers’ Group
Faith & Values Media
Islamic Media Foundation
Media Fellowship International
Professional Association for Christian Writers
Religious Communication Association
Religion Communicators Council
Women in Christian Media
World Association for Christian Communication

• Also see listings for Journalism and Business
• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Community Development • Community Building

Community and leadership development: Religious groups play both upfront and behind-the-scenes roles in community and leadership development. Many religions place value on community, inter-connectedness and cooperation. Religious leaders can be rallying forces for neighborhood change, be outspoken for and against development issues, and may parlay their religious leadership skills and support into political or community leadership. Similarly, community and political leaders may be guided in their decision-making and policy by their religious beliefs.

Local involvement: Understanding the religious climate of your community and the resources religious groups can provide may aid in community decision making and sound policy choices. Effective community development and building rely on understanding economic and social patterns, which may be related to religion. Religious groups may be aware of community needs as far as poverty or resources due to outreach to underserved communities.

Many local activists based in churches, synagogues, mosques and other religious affiliations work to improve neighborhoods, cities and individuals’ lives. Known as faith-based or congregation-based community organizing, such groups often partner with secular organizers, unions and civic and neighborhood groups. Some use aggressive tactics and are highly political, yet most are nonpartisan. Experts say that in 2000, at least 3,500 congregations and 500 union locals, public schools, PTAs and neighborhood groups worked on issues including jobs, public safety, schools, housing and access to health care. Researchers say most American cities have at least one of these networks, which provide training and support and help set local agendas. One of the largest, California-based Pacific Institute for Community Organizing has affiliates pushing 50 projects in 150 cities in 16 states, involving an estimated 1,000 congregations and a million families.

Cooperation: Speaking with religious groups about a community’s needs can be used in addition to traditional approaches, such as designing economic models, demographic analysis, mapping, fiscal analysis, technological adoption and other tools. People of faith often enjoy engaging in public conversation, critiquing prevailing norms and cooperatively imagining a community future. Working with religious individuals and networks, understanding their resources, and being aware of religious demographics is useful when trying to strengthen community-based groups and nonprofits, or foster local entrepreneurship and business growth.

Religious groups can also be helpful when developing community emergency management programs. Many groups have response systems in place to help others in case of emergency. Faiths such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) hold self-reliance as a spiritual tenet, believing that preparing for the future dispels fear. Individuals and families are urged to prepare for emergencies spiritually, financially, by storing a year’s supply of food, and having basic emergency and first-aid supplies available.

First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion & Public Life
Religion & Public Life
Journal of Religion & Society
Sociology of Religion
Religion, State & Society
Religion in Life

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Religion and Diversity in American Society
Haverford College

Religion, Culture and Society
Michael R. Leming
St. Olaf College

Association of Muslim Health Professionals
Christian Community Health Fellowship
Family Christian Association of America
Fellowship of Christian Firefighters
Firefighters for Christ

• Also see listing for Business
• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Computer Science • Computer Engineering • Electrical Engineering • Industrial And Manufacturing

Religious links: Advances in technology have long been tied to religious uses, from the printing press disseminating copies of the Bible, to the Internet, where information and discussions about religion pervade. As we advance into the 21st century, technology will offer more tests to religion and ethical beliefs, as well as more ways people can express religious beliefs through technology.

Today’s technology: Today’s computer science, engineering and manufacturing include multimedia communication and networking, human-machine-computer interfaces, scientific visualization, intelligent information management and systems, electronics, robotics, semi-conductors, biomedical engineering, and more. Designers and implementers in these fields have exciting opportunities for increasing human capability and learning more about the world.

Historically, religion has adapted to changing world-views and technologies, both influencing and being affected by them. For example, religious themes are a growing market in the video game industry. “Al-Quraysh,” a strategy game, tells the story of Islam’s first 100 years from the viewpoint of four nations, Bedouins, Arabs, Persians and Romans. A video game based on the “Left Behind” series of Christian novels has drawn criticism for allowing players to be virtually tempted by forces of evil, convert others to Christianity, or kill them.

Web sites devoted to information and discussion of religions are pervasive, with a popular feature asking people to fill out virtual surveys to discover which “faith,” “biblical character” or “faith leader” they are. Advances in technology have also been useful in preserving and disseminating religious texts. Today, people can read the entire Bible, Koran and other texts on-line, and many sites are searchable by chapter, phrase or keyword, even on hand-held electronic devices. Advances in virtual visualization could also address the challenge of translating religious experience.

Language: Computer technology and engineering can create a universal language. Technology draws on expertise based around the world. It is not uncommon to have engineers from various languages, cultures and nationalities working together on projects, as well as designing for markets different from their own backgrounds. However, one should not assume there is not religious/cultural/ethnic diversity among them because they function in the universal language of technology. By understanding different religions and cultures, engineers can be sensitive to other markets’ cultural norms, as well as those of fellow colleagues.

Religion and technology have in common the ways they can define and direct the course of human life, for positive or negative. Today, some people talk of computers becoming “their religion,” because they inspire such devotion. Anyone debating pro-Mac or pro-PC might see as potential a deadlock as those declaring the superiority of their religious faith over another.

Religion has indirectly influenced the language of computing as well. An example is the popular “avatar,” the representation of a user of virtual reality such as a computer role-playing game, virtual community, Internet forum, instant messaging or e-mail profile. In Hindu philosophy, an avatar (from Sanskrit “avatara,” meaning “descent”), commonly refers to the incarnation of a higher being or the Supreme Being onto planet Earth. The term is used primarily in Hinduism for incarnations of Vishnu, whom many Hindus worship as God. In Vedanta, a school of philosophy within Hinduism, and non-theistic schools of Vedic thought, an avatar is the supreme perfection of a human yogic practitioner. Today the word has gone from meaning a bodily manifestation of a god to the bodily manifestation, or incarnation, of an entity not oneself.

Issues today: Programmers and engineers can find job opportunities amid the growing industry and market for religiously themed goods, from video games to electronic religious references. As places of worship become more high-tech, including PowerPoint sermons, digital recording, podcasting, and integrated lighting, visuals and sound, there are increased opportunities in system design.

Advances in technology also invite ethical discussion. Are there pros and cons to designing video games focused on killing or oppressing, or that depict one religion as superior to others? Does blending human and machine improve quality of life or replace human life? Is it ethical to displace human workers by employing computers and machines? Movies such as “The Matrix” examined whether a computer can have a soul, and whether computers would be concerned with spiritual or religious issues. One could ask, does our ability to create virtual “life” make us virtual “gods?” Those working in technological fields will be at the forefront of these advances and debates.

Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science
Science and Christian Belief
Theology and Science

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Robots and Religion
Signe Cohen
University of Missouri

Affiliation of Christian Engineers
American Society of Engineers of Indian Origin
Association of Christian Engineers and Scientists: (503) 228-0779
Association of Christians in Mathematical Sciences
Association of Muslim Scientists & Engineers
Christian Engineering Society
International Muslim Association of Scientists & Engineers
Jewish High Tech Community
Pagan Internet Designers & Developers Association

• Also see listing for Business
• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Economics • Finance • Personal Financial Planning

Impact of religion: People’s religious beliefs affect practical decisions in their everyday lives, including decisions in personal and business finance and economic philosophy. Religious beliefs influence how people choose to spend their money and how they believe money should be spent. They also inform their beliefs about the role of their nation’s economy in the world and the responsibilities of the state and individual. Religious organizations can also be powerful players in the secular realms of government and politics, affecting economic policy decisions.

Personal finance: Individuals’ and congregations’ religious ethics often govern their financial decisions – in giving, spending, saving, investing, borrowing, allocating and other money matters. For many people, religious beliefs affect what products they buy, and where they choose to spend their money. They may support or avoid certain businesses or industries because of religious beliefs. Some faiths celebrate holidays that lead to seasonal spending on religious-holiday-specific items. Many Christians believe in tithing 10 percent of their income to the church. Muslims are obliged to pay zakat al-fitr (charity) before the end of Ramadan to be given to the poor.

The Christian movement Word of Faith (known for its “Prosperity Gospel”), believes faithful Christians should expect financial prosperity and wealth, based on an interpretation of the words of the Apostle Paul: “Yet for your sakes (Christ) became poor, that you by his poverty might become rich” (2 Corinthians 8:9). Religious beliefs also play a role in individuals’ and congregations’ views toward credit, loans and debt. Christian theology views debt as not a sin, but that it should only be used in extreme necessity, since it leads to financial bondage, based on Proverbs 22:7, “the borrower becomes the lender’s slave.” Some Christians say it is not acceptable for Christians to owe any money, even for a home. Others feel such debts are acceptable as long as debt does not place a burden on the family’s finances.

Islam forbids lending with interest, as the Catholic Church long did, and the Torah states that all debts should be erased every seven years and every 50 years. Mormons believe in self-reliance, emphasizing that emergency preparedness includes preparing financially by staying out of debt, saving for the future and obtaining insurance. Faith-based investing is a burgeoning industry, and houses of worship now routinely offer courses in money management and personal finance.

Business finance: Those involved in the business community often bring with them similar beliefs as those that govern their personal financial habits. Executives and small business owners likely will exercise their personal religious beliefs about finances in the business world as well. Their beliefs affect the products they buy and sell, where they invest, the practices in which they engage, and their behavior in the workplace. Recent large-scale financial fraud in the private industry has caused some in the business community to appeal to religious values as the best way to increase ethical decision making in the workplace, though others are concerned about religion’s potential to create conflict or violate federal workplace laws.

As large corporations come under closer scrutiny, some religious organizations – from Christian mega-churches to Islamic charities (some came under scrutiny following the 9/11 terrorist attacks) – also feel the push to study their books more closely and be more transparent to members and the public about how money is spent. Though big-name mega-churches receive much publicity today, older and smaller churches, many in the mainline Protestant tradition, are shrinking in membership and resources. They are seeking ways to revitalize their church “economies” to remain viable. These could all be a growing industry for analysts and consultants, who can advise churches on economic matters and businesses on ethical matters.

Philosophies: Religious beliefs about economics and personal finance lead people of faith to various positions on current issues. For example, while most churches believe in helping the poor, they take different views on how to do it. Some of the more conservative evangelical Christian churches associate any kind of state intervention with socialism, favoring individual or faith-oriented efforts; though others praise the value of work over welfare, even at minimum wage. Some religious groups see an active role for the state and favor raising the minimum wage, a change they feel is tied to justice and practically a scriptural mandate. Different religious interpretations of philanthropy – where and to whom money should be given, and why – affect both the personal finances of the individual and the resources communities have available to serve needs, locally and globally.

Global scale: Religious beliefs often affect people’s views of global poverty and bounty, and the roles of states and individuals in mitigating suffering. Some religious groups, such as the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A) have joined efforts to divest investment portfolios form Israeli companies and companies that do business with Israel to pressure Israel to guarantee human rights for Palestinians. This angers some other religious groups, such as the (Jewish) Anti-Defamation League, which believes divestment is a punitive measure against Israel for its policies in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

Around the world, wars related to religion affect local and global economies. One could investigate how religion, or its suppression, affects economic growth, or ponder whether increasing abundance through freer markets would decrease the supply of people wiling to be suicide bombers. International Third World debt has reached the scale that many economists, as well as people of faith, are convinced that debt cancellation is the only way to restore global equity in relations with the developing nations. Religious groups often spearhead intervention in impoverished areas to improve quality of life. Some efforts are evangelistic in nature, others are not overtly so. Intervention ranges from providing medical care and building homes, to improving sanitation and teaching indigenous people sustainable agriculture and new enterprises to overcome poverty.

Areas for study: Scholars in large numbers are now analyzing the intersection of faith and economics. They include people from a range of disciplines from across the United States and around the world, as well as students doing groundbreaking research. Questions they could look at include: How does religion affect the economy? How do economic factors impact religious choices? How do religious beliefs affect how people spend their money? What impact does religion have on the global economy? How does membership in a strict or extreme religious group pay off – not just in the afterlife, but in the here and now? Does faith generate individual behavior that boosts the economy?

Researchers could also look at what resources are available for those of faith who want to make large purchases without using credit or incurring debt, or want help consolidating existing debt. This field of study, as well as financial counselors who can offer advice from a religious perspective, will be a growing field.

Journal of Religious Ethics
Journal of Society and Christian Ethics

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Religion, Economy and Values
Ivan Strenski
University of California Riverside

Religion and the Marketplace
Dr. Linda D. Holler
San Diego State University

Theorizing Cultural Differences: The Economics of Fundamentalism
Daniel L. Chen
University of Chicago

Religion in the World: Economics of Religion
Carmel Chiswick
University of Illinois at Chicago

Association of Christian Economists
Association of Christians in Mathematical Sciences
Christian Academics
Muslim Finance Professionals Association

• Also see listing for Business
• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Education • Teaching • Special Education

Historical roles: Religion has played a key role in the formation of educational institutions in the United States. Our oldest and most prestigious universities were initially schools for religious study, and they have evolved along the path of the Enlightenment and the Great Awakening. Early elementary schools taught reading by way of religious text, and often the first words read by a school-age child in the 18th and 19th centuries were from the Bible. Understanding these foundational roles helps one understand some of the current debates in society related to issues such as the teaching of evolution, the use of intelligent design in the classroom, prayer in schools and other issues of debate. There is a religious undertone to these discussions that goes beyond mere belief; some of it is based on tradition and how religion and education were once combined more tightly in the United States.

In addition, the spread of religion throughout the world is highly linked to education. Seminaries have handed down the Christian faith for centuries, as those studying other faiths such as Islam, Buddhism and Judaism have received instruction firsthand from the top minds within those belief systems. But it was not only religion that was taught. Monasteries were centers for study on topics such as astronomy, science and geography. The spread of Christianity can often be tracked as a side-by-side surge along with non-religious ideas based on study done in religious institutions. These models and teaching structures help us understand education as we know it today, and it also offers glimpses in to how we can better teach and train students to have open and thoughtful minds.

Higher education: The rise of religious universities in terms of attendance and prestige has been an oft-covered topic in the news media in recent years. The schools offer a liberal arts education with a religious emphasis, and it is useful to study the trends to examine why students are sometimes choosing these schools over elite schools such as Harvard. Also, the issue of education vs. indoctrination is worth examining at these schools, both in terms of understanding as well as whether these are religious reactions to what is seen as a similar secular model in public institutions. Another issue facing higher education is how to encourage religious diversity at schools without promoting it or discriminating against particular religions. Research that attempts to identify the core issues in this debate would fit well with the Center’s mission to help religious understanding become more integrated within a diverse public.

Public schools: No issue related to religion and education has received more media coverage in the past 20 years than the debate over prayer in public schools. But public schools have also seen clashes over topics such as abstinence education, intelligent design, evolution, religious clubs and the Pledge of Allegiance. The Center’s mission can help those going into public school education in two ways. First, teachers will be interacting with students of religious background every day, and learning more about these debates will also help the instructor understand the diversity of the students they teach. Secondly, the Center’s focus on the specific interaction of religion and public life is useful to the educator attempting to navigate the intersection of those two worlds.

Government and parochial schools: The issue of funding private and parochial schools is one that has been debated for years. The educator faces two questions in this public debate. The first is over how to respond to possible changes that could occur in their own classroom in terms of diversity if school voucher initiatives are allowed. Secondly, it is an issue of public funding and equal opportunity for those students who choose to remain in public schools. It is important for educators and education researchers to be familiar with such issues, which could change the landscape of the field very quickly.

Religion & Public Education
Religion & Education
Journal of Beliefs and Values Studies in Religion & Education
Journal of Education & Religious Belief
Journal of Education & Christian Belief
Teaching Theology & Religion
Religious Education

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Religion and Education
Eric Michael Mazur
Bucknell University

American Academy of Religion
American Association of Christian Schools
Association of Christian Teachers
Association of Classical & Christian Schools
Association of Jewish Teachers
Association of Muslim Social Scientists of North America
Christian Academics
Christian Leadership Ministries
Christian Educators Association International
Christian Scholars Forum (MU Christian faculty and staff)
Faculty Commons
Jewish Early Childhood Association
Jewish Educators Assembly
National Catholic Educational Association
Society for Classical Learning
Society for Values in Higher Education

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • English • Literature • English language and linguistics • Creative writing

Religion and literature: The experience of religion requires a certain level of creativity, to travel to places that are not seen. It is natural that people over time have used literature to express their profound religious experiences, to communicate with others and fully integrate them in their own minds. Writers have also used prose, poetry, plays and other forms of literature to pose questions and critiques about religious beliefs and practices, and their impact on the individual and society. Literature, in turn, has been influenced by the themes of major spiritual scriptures.

Some contemporary examples include J.R.R. Tolkien’s “Lord of the Rings” and C.S. Lewis’ “Chronicles of Narnia” series, which have been popular with readers for decades and draw on Christian themes. Classic literature such as John Milton’s “Paradise Lost” epically retells of the fall of Adam and Eve, focusing on the motivations of the fallen angels. 19th-century Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoevsky’s novels explore religious and philosophical themes such as the nature of God and purpose of evil. Dante Alighieri’s “The Divine Comedy” vividly describes his vision of traveling through hell, purgatory and heaven. One of the earliest recorded epics, the Sumerian tale of Gilgamesh, tells of a king who is two-thirds god and one-third man, on a quest for immortality. The Bhagavad-Gita, an ancient Hindu text, tackles in poetic form the discord between the senses and intuition of cosmic order. It reportedly influenced the works of Omar Khayyam, Walt Whitman, Aldous Huxley, Hermann Hesse and T S Eliot. Hesse’s “Siddhartha” allegorically deals with the spiritual journey of an Indian man called Siddhartha during the time of the Buddha.

These works were not all originally written in English, but translations of many have become part of the canon of English literature courses. They are only a few examples of the relationship between religion and literature, since the beginning of the written word. Their enduring popularity speaks to the power of narrative, myth and story embedded in works of religious scripture and literature. These stories are valued, examined, told and retold because readers and writers find they express deep truths about human nature and the world.

Religion and language: Religion has also influenced the English language spoken and written today, as the blending of religious traditions and cultures over the centuries has added words to each language. One example is the Bible, whose language, symbolism, “characters,” and themes influence the style, symbolism and narrative of much literature today, directly or indirectly. The Bible was first translated into English in the 1520s and 1530s by William Tyndale, leader of the Reformation in England. Phrases we think of as biblical, such as “let there be light” and “ye of little faith” come from his translation of the Bible, as well as “eat, drink and be merry,” “the powers that be,” “the salt of the earth” ” a man after his own heart” and “the signs of the times.”

These found their way into the 1611 King James Bible, which also is the source for English-language expressions such as “can the leopard change his spots?”, “eye to eye,” “gird one’s loins,” “in the twinkling of an eye,” “fell flat on his face,” “a fly in the ointment,” “labor of love,” “put words in his mouth,” “land of the living,” and “the root of the matter,” among others. Some say the King James version is the greatest work of English prose ever written. Its poetic style is reflected in the works of William Shakespeare, Milton, Eliot, Coleridge, Martin Luther King Jr.’s speeches and Abraham Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address.” It is because modern English was so influenced by the King James translation that its text remains readable – and in use – four centuries later.

Issues today: Understanding the religious roots of literature and language lends deeper insights into the works of many writers, both contemporary and of the past. As the global marketplace expands exposure to international literature, knowledge of the texts and traditions of religions around the world will lead to a more contextualized reading of these works, their cultures and current events.

Religion & Literature
Religion & the Arts
Journal of Popular Culture
Journal of Biblical Literature
Journal of Ritual Studies
Christianity and Literature
Journal of Semitic Studies

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Rhetoric of Religion
Karen D. Austin
Shepherd College

The English Bible as Literature
Dr. Theodore Trost
University of Alabama

Exile and Religion in Asian Literatures
McMaster University
Dr. Lavanya Vemsani

Religion and Literature
Dr. Oren B. Stier
Florida International University

Religion in Science Fiction
Dr. James F. McGrath
Butler University

Scriptural and Doctrinal Backgrounds in Literature
David Mycoff
Warren Wilson College

Modern Jewish Literature
Washington and Lee University

Association of Muslim Social Scientists of North America
Catholic Writers Online
Christian Academics
Christian Writers’ Group
Professional Association for Christian Writers
Society of Biblical Literature

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Film Studies • Theater

Film

Religion and film: Since movies’ earliest days, films have reflected how society grapples with questions about the existence of God and the meaning of life. Faith’s trials and triumphs make good stories, and Hollywood has long recognized a good story and told it creatively, from “The Ten Commandments” to “The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe.” Film is now an essential arena for theological discussion in today’s culture. Economics also contribute to the appearance of religious subjects in movies. The success of “The Passion of the Christ” showed the spending power of the evangelical Christian market and its impact at the box office. Hollywood companies now are raising the stakes and multiplying the titles with movies such as “The Nativity Story,” a mainstream film about the birth of Jesus produced by a secular studio.

Rewarding market: Economic rewards, cultural interest in faith issues, and creative challenges have combined to make a great market for making films about spiritual subjects. Those who consume religious themes usually have passionate feelings about the subject, which means a filmmaker presenting these themes should be prepared for adulation from some fronts and condemnation on others. From a creative standpoint, films about religion allow artists to express religious devotion, explore conflicted feelings or examine issues from a new angle, creating contemporary film that can be critical, thought-provoking, surprising, disturbing, paradoxical, comforting and inspiring. A new trend in marketing of religious-themed films is “cross-marketing” to secular and religious audiences. This may mean promotions within congregations, offering advance screenings, and building interest among targeted faith communities before a movie comes out; while also doing traditional media promotion. Some conservative Christians have historically been reluctant to engage in popular culture and have been suspicious of entertainment, but that stance is changing for many

Issues today: Knowledge of the narratives and symbolism of various faith traditions lends insight to understanding the deeper meanings of films that contain references to them or resemble their thematic structures. As the film-going world goes international, filmmakers can be aware that their films are seen in countries around the world, and they are in turn exposed to international films that contain various languages, terminology, symbolism and religious references. Having a religious literacy broadens literacy in film and other disciplines. Those interested in film will find the markets for religious and secular content have grown closer together. There are opportunities in religious-themed films for secular companies, as well as in the religious market. The expectations of religious groups – many raised on low-budget “church basement” films, are changing to expect higher-production quality products that communicate religious messages but are produced and acted more like mainstream cinema. Opportunities exist in both the making and marketing of both categories of films.

Theater

Religion and theater: Asian theater blossomed between 350 and 1330 A.D. at a time when the cultures of Asia also reached a high point in philosophy and religion, which left a permanent impression on Asian theater. Folk theater and dramatics in ancient India can be traced to the religious ritualism of the early Vedic civilization, believed to have composed the four Vedas, the foundation of Hinduism and oldest surviving scriptures in the world. The oldest surviving plays from western theater come from ancient Greece, where theater likely evolved from staged religious choral performances. Performed at religious festivals, Greek theater was often concerned with questions about morality and the relationship between mortals, the gods and fate. In the Middle Ages, secular forms of theater existed, but most remembered are liturgical dramas written in Latin and dealing with Bible stories; or vernacular dramas based on the Bible, about the lives of the saints, or that taught moral lessons through allegorical characters representing virtues or faults. Because these plays were designed to teach Catholic doctrine, the Protestant Reformation targeted theater in an effort to stamp out allegiance to Rome. Other critics of theater included the Puritans, who argued that the stage was pagan and representing a religious figure was idolatrous. Theater revolved less around religion in the Renaissance and neoclassical era, but it remained a common thread as it does today.

Religion and story: Some could argue that the power of drama is similar to that of a religious experience. Good drama transfixes, transports and indelibly changes the individual. Certainly, religious experience itself is rich in drama. Modern theater often produces contemporary interpretations of earlier religious texts in order to “speak to our era” the truths and observations of an earlier time. These re-interpretations bring fresh vision and understanding to modern audiences. Examples include Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber’s musicals “Jesus Christ Superstar” and “Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat,” which re-envision biblical stories; Stephen Schwartz and John-Michael Tebelak’s “Godspell,” a musical based on the Gospel of Matthew in a contemporary urban setting; and Arthur Miller’s play, “The Creation of the World and Other Business,” a dramatic comedy based on a nontraditional interpretation of the Book of Genesis.

Artists seek to illuminate that which lies within, shapes and drives human action, and often seek a place where humanity and transcendence come together. They may struggle with their beliefs and explore their fears, the dogma or perceived contradictions through theater. They ask questions and provoke thought. They may incite more conservative representatives of a religious tradition to protest, particularly when traditional religious values are challenged or confronted in an unorthodox way. Examples include: Terrence McNally’s “Corpus Christi,” which contains a gay, Christ-like character and came under critical protest by Christian groups; Gurpreet Kaur Bhatt’s “Behtzi” (Dishonor), a play involving sex and murder in a Sikh temple, which incited vandalism and protest from Sikhs where it was produced; and an interpretation of the Mozart opera, “Idomeneo,” which contained beheading of Poseidon, Buddha, Jesus and Mohammed and was closed after the Berlin criminal agency warned that the production could create “a dangerous scenario with major potential consequences for public security and order.”

Issues today: Those interested in theater could study the role of religion in development of the dramatic arts; the philosophical and aesthetic characteristics of religious plays; the social, cultural and political role of religious plays; and the relationship between these “passion plays” and contemporary theater. Funding for productions can be both supported or withdrawn based on response from religious communities to creative content. The artistic community also faces questions of where to stand on freedom of speech issues, what constitutes freedom of speech, when it is worth defending and at what cost. Artists are constantly striving to find new ways to express the human experience, which has been directly and indirectly influenced by religion. Today’s audience has an appetite for religious themes, both ones that reinforce spiritual commitment and ones that provoke thought.

Biblical Interpretation
Journal of Religion & Film
Religion & the Arts

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

The Bible at the Movies
David Gunn
Texas Christian University

Christianity in Film
Raymond A. Patterson
St. Michael’s College

Religion and Film
Dr. Adam L. Porter
Illinois College

Religion in Film: Mysticism and Apocalyptic
Dr. Jed Wyrick
California State University Chico

Faith, Film and Culture
Christopher Elwood
Louisville Seminary

Jesus in Fiction and Film
Darren Middleton
Texas Christian University

Catholic Writers Online
Christian Academics
Christian Writers’ Group
Christian Performing Artists’ Fellowship
Christians in the Arts Network
Christians in the Visual Arts
Christians in Theatre Arts
Faith & Values Media
Islamic Media Foundation
Religious Communication Association
Religion Communicators Council
Women in Christian Media
World Association for Christian Communication

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Geography • Geological Sciences

Geography and geology are interesting when looked at through the lens of religion because of the ways these two fields have been used over time both to disprove religion and to make religion manifest. They highlight the role of physical and environmental circumstances in developing religious beliefs and views of the order of the world.

Geology and theology: Today, geologists are accustomed to the idea of changes in the Earth over time, but the idea of the Earth with a long history of development and activity is relatively new. For centuries, those who observed geological formations often assumed such changes – in movement, shape or form – were part of a natural order ruled by a supreme being. Many believed the Earth was relatively young in age and considered the creation account in Genesis (in which God created the world in six days) to be a factual historic record. In the 1600s, scientists and Christian thinkers began actively trying to understand Earth’s narrative and to develop theories about it and how it meshed with biblical records of creation. Many tried to find ways that the two accounts would align by showing that God set natural forces in motion, that God intervened in otherwise “inexplicable” events, or that geological events supported the Genesis account. In the process they developed new theological and scientific ideas.

Multiple theories: Geologists argued over whether there were permanent and reliable laws of nature, whether God intervened with inexplicable events, whether science supported an active God, whether God was inactive but set principles in motion, whether there was divine purpose, and whether there could be both God and inexplicable events. Some set days of creation of the Earth at the Bible’s six days, other posed the idea the Earth could be at least 75,000 years old. Along the way, they developed geological theories of the earth’s history of formation and epochs; mechanically caused events accounting for present geological manifestations; and fieldwork and fossil analysis. Some came to new understanding of a physical world that continued to change based on geological principles. The new theories rocked a culture based on the inerrant record of a faith based on God’s active role in history. The creationist perspective on geological phenomenon ascribes development of geological features such as fossils, fossil fuels, sedimentary layers and undersea canyons to the great flood described in the Bible and its aftermath. Mounting evidence for different ages of sedimentary rocks and fossils eventually convinced most geologists that a single large-scale flood would not explain the evidence. The evolution of these theories showed how humans sought to understand their place in relation to the physical and spiritual worlds.

Common themes: Flood stories from around the world are also symbolic of the ways humans over time have blended their religious beliefs and experience of the physical world. Probably the most familiar is the biblical story in Genesis of God’s decision to bring a flood to wipe out mankind’s corruption and violence. God told Noah, deemed the only man on Earth worthy of saving, to build an ark and load his wife, sons, their wives, animals, food and seedlings so mankind and earth could begin again. According to the account, next came 40 days of rain from “the floodgates of the heavens,” and waters from the “springs of the great deep.” Floodwaters covered the earth for 40 to 150 days. The ark came to rest upon the mountains of Ararat, eventually the land dried, and Noah and his family set forth to start anew. Very similar flood myths are found in Sumerian, Babylonian, Akkadian, Greek, Germanic, Irish, Inca, Maya, American Indian, Chinese, Indian, Indonesian and Polynesian cultures. Many involve landing a vessel on a mountain. Greek versions have the survivors landing on Parnassus, Mouth Othrys, the peak of Phouka (Nemea) or Mount Gerania. The Indian version, told in early Hindu texts, tells of Manu, who was warned by a fish (believed to be the first incarnation of the god Vishnu) that a deluge would occur and destroy all life. Manu built a boat that, pulled by the fish, landed on a mountaintop, allowing him to re-establish life on earth.

Stories such as the flood myths show religious faith based on belief that a God or gods control physical activity on earth. Symbolism is also attached to the geographical object of a mountain.

Symbolism and meaning: In China, Buddhists and Confucians regard mountains as holy places, and they are a favored place for temples, shrines and monasteries. In Shinto, a prehistoric Japanese religious tradition still practiced today, the holiest structures are traditionally near natural features such as waterfalls, forests, mountains or caves. According to tradition, Muhammad, the founder of Islam, received his first revelation in a cave in the mountain of Hira. In another tradition, he was asked to give proof of his teaching and ordered Mount Safa to come to him. When the mountain did not come, Muhammad praised God’s mercy, for had he obeyed, the mountain would have fallen on Muhammad and his followers. Muhammad then announced he would go to the mountain to thank God for his mercy. In Christian scripture, mountains represent coming close to God. After becoming lost in the desert, the Israelites camped around Mount Sinai. Moses went up the mountain to meet with God and receive the commandments. The Gospel of Matthew describes Jesus coming out of the desert to go up a mountain and deliver the Sermon on the Mount. One of the holiest sites of the Greek Orthodox Church is Mount Athos, which is covered in monasteries. The idea of sacred space is important to many religions, including pilgrimages to holy sites and imbuing physical locations or features with spiritual meaning. These are a few examples of how shared landscapes and stores create symbolic language that connects people both to history and the world around them. Religious beliefs are used to both explain physical phenomenon and to derive meaning from physical phenomenon.

Geography and religion: Geography studies the Earth’s features and the distribution of life on the earth, including human life and the effects of human activity. Studying religion as a human activity adds a deeper understanding of the relationship among people and with the Earth. Researchers can look at how religion develops, its importance in shaping beliefs, behavior, culture and politics, and how and where it spreads – shaping the world in which we live. Many religious movements are influenced by the geography in which they developed, and they in turn influence geography by their movement. Religion can spread through forced or chosen migration, colonization, evangelism, missionaries, conversion, trade, and persecution. Whether a faith is evangelistic or not affects how far it spreads. Religious differences can also effect changes in political balance of power, national boundaries and national identity.

Geography and population: Mapping religious populations can give a visual idea of concentrations of faiths around the world and in the United States. Statistics about where faiths are concentrated and percentages living in a certain area can help researchers, social services, schools and the government, and religious organizations. A snapshot of world religious affiliations shows that about a third of people on the planet categorize themselves as Christian, concentrated in the Americas; Pacific-island region of Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, the Malay Archipelago; and Europe, with smaller concentrations in Africa and Asia. A majority of Muslims are found in Asia, with most of the rest in Africa. Buddhism and Hinduism are mainly concentrated in Asia, while Judaism is dispersed around the world. By continent, the Americas are vastly Christian; Africa is about evenly split between Christian and Muslim as dominant religions; and Asia is home to large groups of Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists and Christians. In the United States, 40 percent of Jews and 30 percent of Muslims are concentrated in the mid-Atlantic states. The highest percentage of Jewish, Muslim, Eastern religions and new religious movements is found in New York. Forty percent of adults in New England self-identify as Catholic. Nearly two-thirds of Baptists are found in the south. The Midwest has above-average numbers of mainline Christians, compared to the rest of the country. These figures are important when weighing the needs and desires of specific populations.

Challenges today: Collecting reliable statistics about religion can be difficult. Some agencies are not allowed to ask for religious information and sources of information can be inconsistent due to varying survey questions, participation and data collection (see “Statistics” section). However, as religious conflict, human rights issues, poverty, religious pluralism, and international travel and commerce become increasingly global issues, the importance of understanding religious demographics becomes ever more critical. Researchers may look at where religions are strongest and why, how religious groups and new religions spread geographically, and what factors influence the movement. They can also study how religion defines a region, culturally and politically, and what effect religion has on the physical landscape.

(to come)

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Geography of Religion
Dr. Surinder M. Bhardwaj
Kent State University

Affiliation of Christian Geologists
American Scientific Affiliation: A Fellowship of Christians in Science
Association of Christian Engineers and Scientists: (503) 228-0779
Association of Muslim Social Scientists of North America
Association of Muslim Scientists & Engineers
Canadian Science and Christian Affiliation
International Muslim Association of Scientists & Engineers

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • German Studies • Russian Studies

Religion and history: The histories of Germany and Russia have long been intertwined with religion. Both have borne witness to religious schisms, such as the Protestant Reformation, started in Germany in 1517, by Martin Luther and his “Ninety Five Theses” criticizing Catholic practice; and the “Great Schism,” or Catholic-Eastern Orthodox split, of 1054, over disputes of papal authority. The Schism divided the Christian Church into the Roman Catholic Church in the West, headed by the Pope of Rome, and the Eastern Orthodox Church, led by four eastern patriarchs. The Russian Orthodox Church, which traces its apostolic succession through the Patriarch of Constantinople, became independent from Constantinople in 1448. In contemporary times, the fall of the Berlin Wall dividing East and West Germany, Germany’s reunification, and the collapse of the Soviet Union have impacted religion in these countries, as well as altered their roles in world affairs. Now that travel is more open in these countries, there are increased opportunities for business, tourism and social service that can utilize German and Russian languages.

German and Lutherans: The German language as we know it today exists because of the Protestant Reformation led by Martin Luther. Luther, a German monk, began the Reformation when he published his criticisms of the Catholic Church. One of his beliefs was that Christians should be able to have direct access to the Bible, without relying on the intercession or interpretation of a priest. In the 1520s, condemned by the Holy Roman emperor and in hiding, Luther began translating the scriptures into German. In 11 weeks, he produced the first draft of the German New Testament. He intended the Bible to be read by the common man, but the language that existed at the time in the German states – known as Middle German – was made up of a variety of languages, such as High German in the south and Low German in the north, each with an array of dialects based on location and class. Most books were written in Latin; the German that was written was a form very unlike what was spoken.

Luther chose to translate everyday German into a written form that would be understandable to German speakers from any dialect. He incorporated court language used in Saxony with idioms of everyday speech. The Testament, published in 1522, sold very well, even at a time when most people could not read. The translation created a new written German, now known as modern German, which is the standard written and spoken form of German today. It also contributed to increasing levels of literacy in the German states.

Original languages: Fluency in German and Russian allows people to read the works of major philosophers, authors and poets in their original languages. Many of these thinkers have had evocative positions on religions and their beliefs. Examples include:

Karl Marx: German social philosopher Karl Marx (1818-83) was the son of a Jewish lawyer who converted to Protestantism. He and Friedrich Engels wrote “The Communist Manifesto (1848), which appealed to science and reason as the basis for reform, rather than the rights of man. His best-known work, “Das Kapital,” offered a critical analysis of capitalism. Marx’s ideas had a major influence on workers’ movements, with further impetus added by the victory of the Marxist Bolsheviks in the Russian October Revolution. Marxian ideas have impacted many parts of the world. Marx famously wrote in 1843: “Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sign of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.”

Friedrich Nietzsche: German-born philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) produced critiques of religion, morality, philosophy and contemporary society based on the life-affirming and life-denying qualities of various attitudes and beliefs. The son of a Lutheran pastor, Nietzsche studied theology but lost his faith in the mid-1860s. His best-known book, “Thus Spoke Zarathustra, A Book for All and None” (1883 – 1885), a philosophical work of fiction, imitated the style of the New Testament and the Platonic dialogues. Nietzsche offered interpretation of Western literary and philosophical traditions through the character of Zarathustra (a reference to the historic figure behind Zoroastrianism, an ancient religion born in what is now Iran).

One of Nietzsche’s most contentious works, “The Antichrist, Curse on Christianity” (1888), attacked the morals of Christianity and expressed disgust over how Christianity’s “slave-morality” corrupted values in ancient Rome. Though he gave some respect to Jesus and some Christian elements, Nietzsche proposed an “Anti-Christian” morality that included reframing the perspective of all values. In “The Gay Science,” he ranked one’s life as the sole consideration when evaluating how one should act (contrasting with the Christian view of an afterlife which emphasizes later reward). The book is best known for Nietzsche’s statement: “God is dead. God remains dead. And we have killed him.”

Wolfgang von Goethe: Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), a German poet, novelist, dramatist, humanist, scientist, theorist and painter, disliked the Christian Church, categorizing it as being full of “mistakes and violence.” He described himself as a “decided non-Christian,” studied the Koran and did not deny being a Muslim. His best-known work, “Faust,” tells the story of Faust, a scholar who yearns to comprehend not just all knowledge, but all experience. He makes a pact with a spirit named Mephistopheles that provides for the loss of Faust’s soul if Mephistopheles provides him with an experience he enjoys. Temptations include a young girl, Margaret, whom Faust seduces and abandons, indirectly causing her death and that of their child. Faust also has a love affair with Helen of Troy and fathers a son with her. Later, he reclaims lands from the sea that he intends to turn into a paradise on earth, his legacy to humankind. Happy with this vision, Faust is caught in a moment of satisfaction that Mephistopheles claims as his victory. At the last moment, however, God’s angels save Faust and take his soul to heaven where he is reunited with Margaret and appointed as teacher of the blessed.

“Faust” became the “Ur-myth” (a myth so ancient and all-encompassing that it becomes an irreducible part of human experience) of many figures in the 19th century. The facet of its plot of selling one’s soul to the devil for power over the physical world took on increased literary importance; and became a view of the victory of technology and industrialism at human expense.

Immanuel Kant: German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) grew up in a Pietist household, a Lutheran reform movement that stressed intense religious devotion, a literal reading of the Bible and personal humility. Kant asserted that reason and philosophy are “in reality directed to those three problems only (God, Soul, Freedom),” meaning that no one can really know if there is a God and an afterlife. But no one can really know that there is not a God and an afterlife either. Kant believed that for the sake of society and morality, people can be justified in believing in them, even though they can never know for sure whether they are real.

He believed that happiness is tied to morality, and for this reason, people should choose to believe in God, because the idea of God can’t be separated from happiness-morality as the “ideal of the supreme good.” Kant’s efforts to root religion in morality had a significant impact on Protestant theology in Europe, especially what is called “liberal theology” or “liberal Protestantism,” which stressed the moral content of Christianity, particularly for social reform. Some Catholic thinkers were interested in his philosophy, but an Italian translation of his “Critique of Pure Reason,” was placed on the Roman Catholic Church’s Index of Prohibited Books in 1827.

Alexis Khomiakov: Russian religious poet and theologian Alexis Khomiakov (1804-1860) wrote that “All Protestants are crypto-papists,” meaning that all Western Christians and Western culture itself are intrinsically Catholic, based on the many centuries that Catholicism has been ingrained in Western culture. Khomiakov, who was Russian Orthodox, claimed the West failed to solve human spiritual problems because it stressed competition at the expense of cooperation: “Rome kept unity at the expense of freedom, while Protestants had freedom but lost unity.” He considered both capitalism and socialism to be offspring of Western decadence, and believed that secular and selfish man, denying a divine creator, could not establish a satisfactory social and political order. Khomiakov’s works profoundly influenced the Russian Orthodox Church and Russian lay philosophers, such as Fyodor Dostoyevsky.

Fyodor Dostoevsky: Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoevsky’s (1821-1881) novels explored religious and philosophical themes such as the nature of God and purpose of evil. They also explored human psychology and the political, social and spiritual states of the Russia of his time. Best known for his novels, “The Brothers Karamazov” and “Crime and Punishment,” Dostoevsky’s fiction included themes of existentialism, spiritual torment and religious awakening. Many of his characters arrive at Christianity through a conversion experience, thought to be similar to that Dostoevsky experienced while in prison, which deepened his Russian Orthodox faith.

Leo Tolstoy: Russian novelist and philosopher Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910), best known for his novels, “War and Peace” and “Anna Karenina,” examined war, religion, feminism, and other topics through the characters of his novels. At midlife, Tolstoy determined that he could not go on living without knowing the meaning of life. After exploring a variety of areas, he found his answer in the teachings of Jesus, which in his interpretation have strong Buddhist overtones. He related his conclusions in “My Religion, The Kingdom of God is Within You” and “The Gospels in Brief.”

His teaching stripped Christianity of its tradition and mysticism, rejected personal immortality, rejected the authority of the Church and condemned the State, which he felt sanctioned violence and corruption. Some classified its rejection of compulsion as Christian anarchism. The Russian Orthodox Church excommunicated Tolstoy in 1901. Tolstoy’s teaching concentrated only on the moral teaching of the Gospels; his ideas on nonviolent resistance influenced 20th-century figures such as Martin Luther King, Jr. and Mahatma Gandhi.

By the numbers: Both Germany and Russia are coping with relatively recent changes in access to religion and religious expression, as well as diversity in religion. The Russian Orthodox Church was long backed by the state in Tsarist Russia; under the Bolsheviks there was separation of church and state, which led to a decline in the church; the secular Communist government persecuted religion; and declaration of glasnost (“openness”) and the dissolution of the U.S.S.R. in 1991 meant religious freedom, revealing the continued adherence of a large section of the population to a variety of faiths. The Russian Orthodox Church is again becoming a major element of Russian culture.

Though figures are inconsistent, some statistics say 75 percent of Russians profess adherence to Russian Orthodox Christianity, and about 19 percent professing adherence to Islam, with smaller percentages of non-Orthodox Christians and Jews. Most Muslims in Russia are the indigenous people of lands seized over centuries by the expanding Russian empire. Germany is 34 percent Protestant, 34 percent Roman Catholic, 3.7 percent Muslim and 28.3 percent unaffiliated or other. East Germany experienced suppression of religion under Communism from 1949 to 1990. Work migration in the 1960s and waves of political refugees since the 1970s have brought many Muslims to Germany, making Islam the third most-practiced religion.

Issues today: Both countries have long histories of established Christianity in various forms as the dominant religion. A rise in profile of Muslims is causing them to address existing belief systems about the role of religion in public life. Recent events have led to concerns over radical Islam and affiliation with terrorism, as well as how to best integrate Muslims who seek freedom to practice their faith and live as responsible citizens. Researchers today could study how freedom or lack of freedom to worship impacts how people practice and which faith they practice. They can also study how the socio-economics or political climate of a country impact development of religions and how those religions are practiced. They can examine whether oppression of religion changes its practice or trajectory when freedom to worship is gained.

Researchers can also look at the changing religious demographics of Europe – now considered one of the least-religious continents and most secular societies as a whole – and how the influx of “new” religions affects the status quo. When studying freedom of religion, researchers can look at how freedom to worship is defined, and whether it is possible to have “too much” freedom of religion as well as too little. Knowledge of German and Russian means being able to consume media and other forms of discourse in the native languages of the nations studied to gain deeper understanding and nuance of political, cultural or religious climate and issues.

Religion in Eastern Europe
Religion in Communist Dominated Areas
AJS (Association for Jewish Studies) Review
Modern Judaism
Jewish Quarterly Review

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Nietzsche on Religion
Dr. Tim Murphy
University of Alabama

Modernity Faith and Crisis: 20th century German-Jewish Identity and Thought
Yotam Hotam
University of Wisconsin

Religion in Russia
Rev. Joseph Loya
Villanova University

History and Sociology of Religion in Russia
Harley Wagler

North American Christian Foreign Language Association

• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.

DISCIPLINES: • Anesthesiology • Medicine • Dermatology • Family And Community Medicine • Health Management • Internal Medicine • Nursing • Obstetrics And Gynecology • Occupational Therapy • Ophthamology • Orthopaedic Surgery • Otolaryngology • Pathology And Anatomical Sciences • Physical Medicine And Rehabilitation • Physical Therapy • Radiology • Surgery • Nutrition Science • Pharmacology • Child Health • Health Psychology • Neurology • Occupational Therapy • Physical Medicine And Rehabilitation • Physical Therapy

Religion and medicine: While the intention of religion and health is to nurture the individual, religion and health can sometimes become a confrontation of values. The medical profession’s set of values and operational procedures can conflict with corresponding values found in people of faith. This disconnect can go both ways and apply to both the patient and practitioner, which can impact quality of care.

Differing beliefs: Patients may come from worldviews that hold different beliefs about what causes illness and acceptable ways to treat it. If there is a difference in values or ethics concerning the correct way to treat a specific illness, should the values of the patient or the doctor prevail? Some religions, such as Islam, have rules of conduct about nudity/modesty, touching of a person’s body, and being alone with a member of the opposite sex, even if it is a medical practitioner.

Various religions have views about the sacredness of the body and the will of God that may prevent believers from consenting to medical intervention. Christian Science, for example, holds that the ills of the flesh can be healed through prayer and faith in God. Traditionally, believers do not rely on conventional medicine, though there is no formal compulsion to eschew medical means. Some animists believe that illness is caused by evil spirits or brought on by offending deceased ancestors, rather than physical conditions. Medical practitioners can be sensitive to these beliefs when performing examinations or recommending a course of care.

Ethical choices: Practitioners also face ethical choices that might conflict with professional values. They face questions of whether they should be required to provide a type of care they find morally inconsistent with their values – such as a pharmacist whose religious values might stand in the way of filling a prescription for an emergency contraceptive or for birth-control for an unmarried woman, or a Catholic surgeon who may not believe in performing surgeries to prevent pregnancy. There is ongoing debate over “conscience clause” legislation that seeks to protect pharmacists from filling prescriptions for drugs they find morally objectionable while still protecting a patient’s right to have prescriptions filled. Some pharmacists who have lost their jobs or been disciplined are filing lawsuits.

The debate in stem-cell research extends to both the ethics of government funding and concerns over value of life. Some say that the possible ability to cure many serious diseases is worth compromising the potential life of an embryo; others say potential life is sacred and should not be compromised for any reason. Religious believers come on both sides of the debate (see Biology and Stem Cell Research). With advances in this technology there will also be debates as to whether patients will choose or have the right to choose to be treated with these cures.

These are questions that practitioners and patients wrestle with in hospitals and clinics nationwide. The Center on Religion & the Professions is devoted to helping bridge those gaps through creating curriculum and education. For example, the Center is developing a series of short courses for medical, nursing and health professionals to help them understand how clients’ religious beliefs and practices may come in conflict with traditional medical practices and ways to approach these situations.

National issues: Some medical institutions, such as Catholic hospitals, operate under the purview of privately funded religious organizations. There is some debate as to whether these institutions have the right to refuse to treat illnesses in certain ways or refuse to write or fill prescriptions for religiously objectionable drugs. The debate centers on whether the religious freedom to which such institutions are entitled trumps a patient’s right to complete care, also extending to related liability issues.

Debates over stem-cell research, therapeutic cloning, abortion, contraceptives and other medical treatments make up a large and influential part of political and public discussion. Other issues involve differences in how medical professionals and religious communities choose to confront the crisis of AIDS. For example, some people’s religious beliefs might dictate not providing some types of care to AIDS sufferers due to beliefs about how patients’ lifestyles may have affected how they were infected with the disease. Others, guided by religious beliefs, believe extending help to those with AIDS is an obligation.

Working professionals in the medical care industry confront differing sets of values and must learn to navigate these in their professional life. In addition, changes to national policy will also have an effect on the professional’s work. Understanding that culture is constantly evolving will allow the professional to adapt to a field often defined by ethical issues.

Workplace issues: Chaplains in hospital and professional settings are a growing phenomenon. They must be versed in a variety of religions because they often are speaking with people of different faith backgrounds. It is helpful for chaplains to have knowledge of the languages and cultures most likely to be encountered in their communities. Understanding the various traditions’ beliefs about the body, health and the afterlife also assists in care.

Recent studies show that doctors in the United States are more likely to be Muslim, Buddhist or Jewish than the rest of the population. Nursing shortages in the U.S. have also led to employing more nurses from overseas, while many medical students come to American medical schools from abroad and obtain positions in the U.S. This diversity offers both potential for greater understanding and improved care and possible misunderstandings or cultural clashes in a medical setting.

Health campaigns: Some ethnic groups are more susceptible to certain medical conditions. For example, Latinos are vulnerable to Type 2 diabetes, African-Americans to sickle-cell anemia, and eastern European (Ashkenazi) Jews to Tay-Sachs disease. Although these are ethnic factors, religion is often a bonding force in these communities. Health education campaigns targeting religious groups can be a way to effectively distribute messages about these issues.

The Center is affiliated with the MU School of Journalism, which is researching ways to target ethnic groups with media messages about health campaigns. One project focuses on how to use media to better inform African-American women about breast cancer examinations. Religious institutions can act as clearinghouses for information and be distributors of health campaign material. The Center’s focus on education in religious communities makes it a good conduit for such a partnership.

Faith and healing: Research has sought to find relationships between religion and healing. Research shows prayer’s value in helping people recover from illness is ambiguous, with some studies showing better recovery in those who prayed or were prayed for, whether or not they were aware of it; and others showing no relation between prayer and healing.

The practice of “faith healing,” a spiritual means of treating illness, prompts healing through the power of the Holy Spirit through laying on of hands, or relies on intercessory prayer of a saint or person with the gift of healing. Though scientific studies have not indicated success resulting from faith healing, many people do resort to faith healing, particularly in cases of incurable disease. Some people believe it should be the primary or sole remedy, which poses particular ethical concerns for medical professionals when parents decline or refuse medical care for their children, based on their religious rights to choose to rely on alternative healing.

Practitioners could also be aware of practices such as Ayruvedic medicine, a Hindu approach to healthy living that considers physical, mental, social and spiritual harmony. While considered an “alternative” form of treatment in the U.S., it is embraced in several other countries, and is growing in popularity and acceptance in the U.S.

The Center’s research: According to the Center’s research, people of faith don’t always have a better medical outcome, but seem to feel better about the outcome and have better sense of well-being than non-spiritual patients, even if ill or terminal. The Center’s Spirituality and Health project’s team of diverse faculty and professionals has expertise in religious studies, cultural anthropology, social work, medical sociology, neuropsychology, health psychology, rehabilitation medicine and oncology. Its current research project is investigating the relationships that exist among spirituality, religion, physical health and mental health in individuals with chronic illnesses and disabilities such as traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, stroke, cancer, ventilator-dependent pulmonary disorders and other physical conditions.

Follow-up studies will look at the efficacy of mindfulness-based stress reduction on persons with chronic disabilities; transcendence and right hemisphere functioning; and spirituality as a personality construct. The Center is pursuing funding to study spirituality and health-risk behaviors in adolescents and the relationship between neuroscience and religion.

Issues today: Having staff that are religiously and culturally literate helps bridge gaps in patient care. Medical staff that speak languages of patients so information can be communicated without the need of a translator – often a young relative, in recent immigrant families – is also helpful. Medical practices can be conscious of having staff that reflect the cultural makeup of the community they serve and engage in teaching about religious practices and beliefs.

Researchers can study conscience challenges in the workplace, such as how often conscience plays a role in providing or choosing not to provide a particular medication, surgery or treatment. Do people of the same faith practice these principles differently in a medical context? What roles do laws play in affecting or changing attitudes about religious and medical practice? Researchers could study whether chaplains aid in healing or are helpful in a hospice setting. They could also study the impacts of diversity among medical practitioners and patients, or work with the Center on further research into religion/spirituality, health, healing and well-being.

Journal of Religion & Health
Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science
Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging
Journal of Religion, Disability & Health
Studies in Religion/Sciences religieuses
Mental Health, Religion, & Culture

American Academy of Religion Syllabi Search

Religious Factors in Health Care
Dr. Paul Duckro
St. Louis University

Medicine, Religion and Politics in Africa and the African Diaspora
Prof. Erica James
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Healing: Sacred and Secular
Dr. James W. Jones
Rutgers University

Religion and Medicine
Hunter E. Woodall

American Scientific Affiliation: A Fellowship of Christians in Science
Association of Muslim Health Professionals
Association of Christian Engineers and Scientists: (503) 228-0779
Association of Muslim Scientists & Engineers
Australian Faith Community Nurses Association
Catholic Health Association of the United States
Catholic Health Association of Canada
Catholic Medical Association
Christian Academics
Christian Chiropractors Association
Christian Community Health Fellowship
Christian Dental Society
Christian Medical Fellowship
Christian Medical and Dental Association
Christian Medical & Dental Society Canada
Christian Medical Fellowship (Glasgow)
Christian Pharmacists Fellowship International
Christian Physical Therapists International
Christians in Caring Professions
Fellowship of Christian Optometrists
Fellowship of Christian Physician Assistants
Georgia Association of Physicians of Indian Heritage
Health Ministries Association
Health Physics Society Christian Fellowship
Interfaith Health & Wellness Association
International Christian Medical & Dental Association
Islamic Medical Association of North America
Muslim Doctors and Dentists Association UK
Nurses Christian Fellowship
Occupational Therapists for Christ
Pagan Alliance of Nurses
Pagan Birth and Parenting Professionals
Southern Medical Association

• Also see listing for Business
• See a full list of professional associations and resources here.